Chapter 2: Theories of Personality

1. Chapter 2: Theories of Personality Prof. M. Davis-Brantley

2. Psychodynamic Theory • Theory created by Sigmund Freud who was trained as a physician • From Vienna, Austria and conducted much of his work during the late 1800’s and early 1900’s • Primarily worked with upper-class, Viennese women who presented with physical difficulties with no organic cause • These symptoms would often disappear and return without explanation • He noticed that they would express strong emotions when hypnotized and was first to comment that the root of their difficulties were psychological

3. Psychodynamic Theory: Psychosexual Stages of Development • Oral Stage • Gratification is obtained through oral activities such as sucking or biting • This occurs during the 1st year of life and is how the child begins to learn about the world • Early weaning can result in frustration and result in indulgence later on in life and these individuals are likely to be dependent, overeat, smoke, use alcohol excessively, or nail bite • Anal Stage • Gratification is obtained through contraction and relaxation of the muscles that control bowel movements. Early on these muscle work involuntarily. • Toilet training is likely to take place during this time and the child is learning to distinguish between immediate gratification and self-control • Phallic Stage • Libidinal energy has moved to the genital area of the body (penis and clitoris) • Children may be reprimanded for masturbatory behaviors that aren’t socially acceptable • Children may begin to form affection for members of the opposite sex and the Oedipus/Electra complex may arise • Oedipus/Electra complex typically resolves itself by ages 5 & 6 where the child begins to identify with the member of their own gender and seeing that individual as someone to learn from and they begin to incorporate gender roles and demands into repertoire • Latency Stage • Resolution of the complex leads to the entering into the repression of all sexual feelings until they reemerge during the genital stage in adolescence • Genital Stage (Adolescence)

4. Psychodynamic Theory: Structure of Personality • Psychic Structures are mental structures that represent aspects of behavior • Id is the structure that is present at birth and represents the physiological drives • Functions under the Pleasure Principle • Ego begins in the first year of life because a child’s demands cannot be met immediately • Functions to under the Reality Principle and attempts to balance the Id and Superego • Superego functions as a moral guardian and sets forth high standards for behavior • Functions under the Moral Principleand acts as the conscience

5. Psychodynamic Theory:Structure of the Mind • Human mind is like an iceberg • Conscious • The clear and evident aspects of the personality • What is evident to others • Preconscious • Not in immediate awareness but is able to brought into awareness by focusing attention • Unconscious • Not at all in awareness • Can contain biological instincts such as sex and aggression

6. Psychodynamic Theory:Defense Mechanisms • Repression: The ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas from awareness • Regression: The return, under stress, to a form of behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development • Rationalization: The use of self-deceiving justifications for unacceptable behavior • Displacement: The transfer of ideas and impulses from threatening or unsuitable objects to less threatening objects • Projection: The thrusting of one’s own unacceptable impulses onto others so that others are assumed to harbor them • Reaction Formation: Assumption of behavior in opposition to one’s genuine impulses in order to keep impulses repressed • Denial: The refusal to accept the true nature of a threat • Sublimation: The channeling of primitive sexual or aggressive impulses into positive, constructive efforts

7. Neo-Freudian: Psychosocial Stages • Trust vs. Mistrust—babies learn to trust others will care for their basic needs (birth to 1 year) • Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt—child learns that they can be self-sufficient (1-3 years) • Initiative vs. Guilt—children learn to undertake many adult activities or be punished by parents and made to feel guilty (3-6 years) • Industry vs. Inferiority—child learns to be competent and productive or unable to do anything (6-11 years) • Identity vs. Role Diffusion—Begin to understand/figure out “Who am I”? Or are confused about who they are (adolescence) • Intimacy vs. Isolation—Person seeks companionship and love or can become isolated because of fear of rejection or disappointment (Young adulthood) • Generativity vs. Stagnation—Person explore contribution to next generation such as meaningful work, raising a family, etc…(Middle Adulthood) • Integrity vs. Despair—Person tries to make sense of life and sees it as meaningful or not goal-directed (Older adulthood)

8. Learning Theories: Behaviorism • Focus on human’s capacity to learn from their environment and to manipulate the world • Learning-is the process that results in a relatively consistent change in behavior or behavior potential and is based on experience • John Watson is considered the father of behaviorism • He argued that previous use of introspection was not an acceptable means of studying behavior • This was too subjective means of studying human behavior • Observable behavior is key because states of consciousness “are not verifiable and for that reason can never become data for science

9. Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning • A basic form of learning in which one stimulus or event predicts the occurrence of another stimulus • Ivan Pavlov-Russian physiologist studied digestion in dogs (1904) • His experiment was interrupted when the dogs salivated randomly • Actually were salivating in response to lab assistants entering the room • Pavlov began experiments to demonstrate that the dogs salivated in response to stimuli that was associated with food

10. Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning • Pavlov placed meat powder on the dog’s tongue which led to the dog salivating • The he repeated this process while ringing a bell • After several pairings of the meat powder and the bell the two became associated • When Pavlov would ring the bell the dog learned salivate in response to the bell because the bell and meat powder were conditioned

11. Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning • Meat powder was the stimulus which lead to conditioning • Unconditioned Stimulus (US) is the stimulus which elicits a response from an organism without learning (meat powder) • Unconditioned Response (UR) is an unlearned response (salivation) • Conditioned Stimulus (CS) the previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response (bell) • Conditioned Response (CR) the response to a conditioned stimulus (salivation to the bell)

12. Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning • Conditioning of Fears • John Watson demonstrated ability to condition fears utilizing one year old “Little Albert” • Wanted to condition fear of a lab animal-used a small white laboratory rat and banged steel bars when “Little Albert” would reach out and attempt to play with him

13. Behaviorism: Classical Conditioning • What happens to CRs-can become extinguished when CSs are presented repeatedly but not paired with US • Extinction is when the CS is presented but not paired with the US • Ex: Ringing the bell but not pairing it with the meat powder • Spontaneous Recovery occurs when a previously extinguished behavior recurs after much time has elapsed

14. Behaviorism: Operant Conditioning • In Classical Conditioning involuntary responses such as salivation are often conditioned whereas in Operant Conditioning voluntary responses such as pecking are conditioned • Operant Conditioning is a simple form of leaning in which behavior is altered based on reinforcements and punishments • B.F. Skinner demonstrated that hungry pigeons will learn to peck buttons to get food

15. Behaviorism: Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement is a stimulus that increases the frequency of a behavior • Different from a reward in that by contrast a reward is a pleasant stimulus that increases the frequency of a behavior • Positive Reinforcement increases the frequency of behavior when presented • Ex: Laughter Sr+ Joke telling • Negative Reinforcement is a reinforcer that increases the frequency of a behavior when it is removed • Ex: Umbrella prevents getting wet in a rainstorm • Ex: Seat belt buzzer serves a Sr- function the annoying sound is terminated when the driver buckles up

16. Behaviorism: Operant Conditioning • Reinforcements • Primary Reinforcers are unlearned reinforcers such as food, water, warmth, pain, affection, etc… • Secondary Reinforcer is a stimulus that gains reinforcement value as a result of association with established reinforcers. • Ex: Money, tokens, etc…

17. Behaviorism: Operant Conditioning • Punishment is an unpleasant or aversive stimulus that decreases the frequency of behavior • Many theorists don’t recommend the use of punishment especially in rearing children • These theorists assert that punishment by nature does not suggest an alternate more desirable form of behavior • Punishment is warranted in the case of emergencies such as teaching a child not to run out into the street

18. Behaviorism: Operant Conditioning • It is considered preferable to focus on rewarding individuals for desirable behavior vs. punishing them for undesirable behavior • Consider everyday use of Operant Conditioning: Socialization • Children are punished for fighting and rewarded for sharing or getting good grades

19. Social Learning Theory or Social-Cognitive Theory

20. Cognitive Social-Learning Theory • Developed by Albert Bandura • (Research on aggressive behavior: BoBo Doll Study) • Focus is on the importance of environmental influences on behavior and the cognitive processes that accompany • Combines the principles of learning with an emphasis on human interactions in social settings

21. Cognitive Social-Learning Theory • Reciprocal Determinism • Complex interaction of individual factors (person variables), behavior, and environment stimuli • Person Variables • Factors within the person that influence behavior such as expectancies, competencies, attitudes, beliefs, or prior Sr+ history • These variables are in addition to your effect on the environment and the environment’s effect on you • Ex: Beginning an exercise regimen • Reciprocal Determinism: Person—Environment—Behavior

22. Cognitive Social-Learning Theory • Theorists believe that individuals are not just a result of their environments but they are self-aware and purposefully engage in learning and attempt to alter their environment in order to make Sr+ available • Individuals do this through Observational Learning

23. Cognitive Social-Learning Theory • Observational Learning- the process by which a person alters their own behavior based on observations of another person’s behavior • Operant Conditioning: Stimulus + Sr results in learning • With Social-learning observation individuals learn what behaviors are appropriate and get rewarded and which behaviors are not and get ignored or punished through direct observation • Direct Sr+ are not necessary • Learner can observe others through reading or seeing on TV or in movies • Ex: Style or interacting with others

24. Cognitive Social-Learning Theory • Self-efficacy is the belief that one can perform adequately in a particular situation • Self-efficacy influences your perceptions, motivation, and performance in many ways • Do we attempt to do things we think we perform poorly? We avoid situations in which we will feel inadequate. • Self-efficacy expectations are beliefs that we can accomplish certain things, such as speaking before a group or swimming • Those with positive self-efficacy expectations have higher self-esteem

25. Humanistic-Existential Theory

26. Humanism • Foundation: Philosophers Humanists and Existentialists • Focus on the meaning of life and self-awareness • Adopted by Psychologists in the 1950’s who wanted to respond the predominant Psychodynamic and Behavioral model • Places individuals and self-awareness at the center of consideration • Believe that people are capable of free choice, self-fulfillment, and ethical behavior • Argue that humans are not as automatic as other theories assert

27. Existentialism • The view that people are completely free and responsible for their own behavior • Existentialists believe that the focus is on higher mental processes that interpret current experiences and enable individuals to meet or be overwhelmed by the everyday challenges of existence

28. Humanistic-Existential Theory • Primary Humanistic Theorists: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers • Believed that the motivation for behavior comes from a person’s unique tendencies, both innate and learned • The motivation for behavior is to develop and change in positive directions toward the goal of self-actualization

29. Humanistic-Existential Theory • Self-Actualization is the constant striving to realize one’s inherent potential to fully develop one’s capacities and talents • Since people are unique they must follow unique paths to reach self-actualization • Drive for self-actualization at times comes into conflict with the need for approval from the self and others, especially when the person feels that certain obligations or conditions must be met in order to gain approval—This is one of the main threats to personality development

30. Humanistic-Existential Theory • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • In order to progress towards the higher psychological need of self-actualization we must progress through other needs first starting with our most basic survival needs

31. Esteem needs- achievement, competence, approval, prestige, status Love and belonging—love and acceptance through intimate relationships, social groups, and friends Safety needs—protection from physical and social environment by means of clothing, housing, and security Biological needs—water, food, elimination, warmth, rest, avoidance of pain, sexual release Self-Actualization

32. Humanistic-Existential Theory Where are you on the Hierarchy or Needs?

33. Humanistic-Existential Theory • Carl Rogers’s Self Theory • Defines the self as the center of life experience • Self is an ongoing sense of who and what you are, your sense of how and why you react to the environment, and how you choose to act on the environment • Choices are made based on your values and morals

34. Humanistic-Existential Theory • Rogers viewed people as unique and with completely different perspectives • Self-concepts consist of our impressions of ourselves and our evaluations of our adequacy • We view ourselves in terms of frames of reference which are our unique perceptions and attitudes of ourselves • This is how we organize and understand our world, our perceptions, our experiences • Every situation that occurs you eventually put a frame of reference around it so that it makes sense to you • When we are confused it takes us longer to place a frame around the situation • Ex: Men arrive at your door with masks on

35. Humanistic-Existential Theory • In addition to self-concept, Rogers stated we develop self-esteem(self-regard) • Development of self-esteem starts during childhood • Children are said to develop high self-esteem when parents show them Unconditional positive regard • U.P.R. refers to acceptance of the child regardless of their behavior at the moment • Those who are shown Conditional positive regard are said to develop low self-esteem or conditions of worth • Child is shown affection only when they behave in the desired manner. Child believes they are only worthy of love if the behave in certain ways or meet certain standards

36. Experience life here and now Must be open to new experience Be able to express their feelings and ideas Are their own person Trust their intuitive feelings Engage in meaningful activities to enhance life Capable of major change in their lives Humanistic-Existential Theory: Healthy Personality

37. Personality and Human Diversity Sociocultural Theory

38. Sociocultural Theory • View that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in the development of personality, behavior, and adjustment • EX: Here now vs. there then • Hannah, the Korean American teenager

39. Sociocultural Theory • Individualist is a person who defines her/himself in terms of personal traits and gives priority to her/his own goals • Tend to be those from the US or northern European nations • Collectivist is a person who defines her/himself in terms of relationships to other people and groups and gives priority to group goals • Cultures in Africa, Asia, and Central and South America tend to be more group oriented and comply with group norms and demands