The philosophes of the Enlightenment PART I

1. The philosophesof the EnlightenmentPART I History 311

2. The Enlightenment In the eighteenth century, a daring and dramatically new intellectual and cultural movement arose in western Europe. Of its many characteristics — audacity, wit, an interest in the practical and the applied —none was more important than its critical, biting edge. This opinionated movement called for “enlightenment”— for new thinking about once unquestioned truths and eventually for new actions. Best characterized by the metaphor of light, the Enlightenment has retrained the name it acquired early in the eighteenth century. (Jacob, p. 1)

3. Enlightenment as Intellectual Movement • Difficult to Date – 18th Century – Primarily in France • Led by a diverse group of intellectuals commonly called the philosophes • Not so much a coherent philosophy, but an intellectual movement—the 18th century version of the cultural wars • Intellectual Roots of Liberalism—political, economic, and social liberalism

4. DefiningCharacteristics • Reason vs Revelation • Secular • Deism • Empirical • Toleration • Freedom of Speech • Freedom of Press • Religious Freedom • Anti-clerical and anti-authoritarian • Emphasis upon Education • Equality before the Law • Cultural Relativism • Theory of Progress

5. Sir Isaac Newton, 1642-1727 • Newtonian Worldview • One universal, mathematical law • explains all motion in universe • World of nature open to human • investigation and knowledge • Mechanical view of nature • Orderly, regulated, uniform • Machine operates by natural laws • Natural Laws can be Known by Man Principia, 1687

6. Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690 • Denies Innate Ideas • Tabula rasa • Sensation • Reflection • Lockean Epistemology • Does for Human Mind • What Newton Does for • Universe John Locke 1632-1704

7. John Locke 1632-1704 A Letter Concerning Toleration, 1689,1690,1692 • Laissez-faire liberalism in religion and politics • Limitations of the human mind • Political Dualism • Civil & Ecclesiastical Realms

8. Forming Political Society:The Social Contract • What is gained: • “Established, settled, known law” • “a known and indifferent judge” • Power to enforce the law • What is given up: • Individual right to determine and punish violators of the law

9. Conclusions • Locke gives theoretical basis for modern political liberalism: • Political authority resides in the individual • Establishes the right to revolution • Locke gives theoretical basis for modern economic liberalism • Property rights reside in the individual • The use of money justifies economic inequality • Locke’s influence in America and the modern world--incalculable

10. The Crisis of the European Mind and the Debate Over Religious Toleration

11. Blaise Pascal,1623-1662 • Child Prodigy and Mathematical Genius • Work on Conic Sections & Probability Theory • Scientific Work on Barometer • 1654 Mystical Experience • Provincial Letters & Pensées “The heart has its reasons of which reason knows nothing.”

12. Pierre Bayle, 1647-1706 • Huguenot Refugee in Rotterdam • Skeptic and Advocate for Toleration • Nouvelles de la République des Lettres • Historical and Critical Dictionary , 1697

13. The philosophesof the EnlightenmentPART II History 311

14. Richard Simon, 1638-1712 • Catholic Priest taught by the Fathers of the Oratory • Critical History of the Old Testament • Latter Volumes on the New Testament • Significance of Biblical Criticism

15. Baron de Montesquieu 1689-1755 Persian Letters, 1721 Spirit of the Laws, 1748 • Cultural Relativism • Making a “science of society” • Doing for Human Institutions • What Newton Did for Physical • Universe

16. Spirit of the Laws, 1748 • Method—Seeks operative laws • Nature and Principle (or Spirit) • Three Kinds of Government • Republican (Virtue) • Monarchy (Honor) • Despotism (Fear) • Checks and Balances • Legislative • Executive • Judicial • Control of Military Baron de Montesquieu 1689-1755

17. Denis Diderot 1713-1784 Born in Langres, France Son of cutler Educated by Jesuits Philosophical Thoughts, 1746 Active in salon culture Letter on the Blind, for Use of Those Who See, 1749

18. Denis Diderot 1713-1784 Encyclopedia, or a systematic dictionary of the sciences, arts, and crafts

19. 1721-1795 Under the Direction of his Father, the Chancellor, Malesherbes was official censor of the press during Reign of Louis XV Chretien-Guillaume de Lamoignon de Malesherbes

20. Mathematician & Philosopher Co-Editor of Encyclopedia Project with Diderot Author of the Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia Jean le Rond d'Alembert 1717-1783

21. 17 volumes of articles, • issued from 1751 to 1765 • 11 volumes of illustrations, • issued from 1762 to 1772 • 18,000 pages of text • 75,000 entries • 44,000 main articles • 28,000 secondary articles • 2,500 illustration indices • 20,000,000 words in total

22. Typical of Encyclopedia Plates on Technology

23. Frontispiece to Encyclopedia Symbolism of the Bright Light of Truth Reason and Philosophy remove the Veil

24. The philosophesof the EnlightenmentPART III History 311

25. Frontispiece to Encyclopedia Symbolism of the Bright Light of Truth Reason and Philosophy remove the Veil

26. Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin

27. Madame de Tencin Julie de Lespinasse Marie du Deffand

28. Boucher Painting of Madame de Pompadour Mistress to Louis XV

29. Voltaire Francois Marie Arouet 1694-1778 • Personification of the Enlightenment • Poet, novelist, playwright, essayist • Letters Concerning the English Nation, 1733 • Candide, 1759 • Philosophical Dictionary, 1764

30. Voltaire 1694-1778 • English Visit 1726 (Rohan Affair) • Letters Concerning the English Nation, 1733 • Elected to French Academy, 1746 • Candide, 1759 • Philosophical Dictionary, 1764

31. Émilie, Marquise du Châtelet-Laumont (1706-1749) Frontispiece of Voltaire/Chatelet Translation of Newton Cirey Period (1733-1749)

32. Voltaire 1694-1778 • English Visit 1726 (Rohan Affair) • Letters Concerning the English Nation, 1733 • Elected to French Academy, 1746 • Candide, 1759 • Philosophical Dictionary, 1764

33. Alexander Pope 1688-1744 Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz 1646-1716 Essay on Man, 1734 Theodicy, 1710

34. “Optimism”“The Best of All Possible Worlds”“Whatever is, is Right” • System of Theodicy – Leibniz • Metaphysical Evil • Moral Evil • Physical Evil

35. Voltaire 1694-1778 • Berlin Period (1750-1753) • Geneva/Ferney Period (1755-1778) • Lisbon Earthquake, 1755 • Jean Calas Case (1762-1765) • Ecrasez l’infame • Triumphal Return to Paris, 1778

36. Founder of Romanticism? Contributions to Political Theory, Educational Theory & Literature Early Life Born in Geneva Aimless Early Life Arrives in Paris 1742 Confessions (circa 1770’s) The New Heloise, 1761 Emphasis on Feeling and Authenticity Challenge to the Emphasis on “Reason” Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778

37. Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778 Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, 1751 Discourse on Inequality, 1755 The Social Contract, 1762 “The General Will”

38. Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778 Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, 1751 First Discourse (Prize Essay for the Academy of Dijon) “Has the re-establishment of arts and sciences contributed to purge or corrupt our manners?” “What a happiness it would be to live amongst us, if our exterior appearance were always the true representation of our hearts…” “Before art had new molded our behaviors, and taught our passions to talk an affected language, our manners were indeed rustic, but sincere and natural…”

39. Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778 Discourse on the Origins of Inequality, 1755 Second Discourse (Prize Essay for the Academy of Dijon) “What is the origin of inequality among men, and is it authorized by natural law?“ “All ran headlong to their chains, in hopes of securing their liberty; for they had just wit enough to perceive the advantages of political institutions, without experience enough to enable them to foresee the dangers.” Man is naturally good…in the state of nature. Property and greed create distinctions and create the need for the state and law

40. The Social Contract, 1762 How could this fraudulent contract of government be made legitimate? “Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains. One thinks himself master of others, and still remains a greater slave than they. How did this change come about? I do not know. What can make it legitimate? That question I think I can answer.” Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778 “The General Will”

41. Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778 The Nature of the Social Compact “The problem is to find a form of association which will defend and protect with the whole common force the person and goods of each associate, and in which each, while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before. This is the fundamental problem of which the social contract provides the solution.” “Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.” “The General Will”

42. Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778 The Nature of the Social Compact “In order then that the social compact may not be an empty formula, it tacitly includes the undertakings, which alone can give force to the rest, that whoever refuses to obey the general will shall be compelled to do so by the whole body. This means nothing less than that he will be forced to be free… .” (Kramnick, p, 435) “There is often a great deal of difference between the will of all and the general will; the latter considers only the common interest, while the former takes private interest into account, and is no more than a sum of particular wills...” (Kramnick, p, 437) “The General Will”

43. Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778 The Nature of the Social Compact “As soon as public service ceases to be the chief business of the citizens and they would rather serve with their money than with their persons, the State is not far from its fall. When it is necessary to march out to war, they pay troops and stay at home: when it is necessary to meet in council, they name deputies and stay at home. By reason of idleness and money, they end by having soldiers to enslave their country and representatives to sell it.” “Good laws lead to the making of better ones; bad ones bring about worse. As soon as any man says of the affairs of the State, ‘What does it matter to me?,’ the State may be given up for lost.” ( “The General Will”

44. Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778 The Nouvelle Heloise and Emile 1761-62 Great success of Sentimental Novel Emile Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar Educational Theory

45. System of Moral Philosophy, 1755 “Moral Sense School” “A Sense is every determination of our minds to receive ideas independently of our will, and to have perceptions of pleasure and pain.” Five Senses, plus… Public Sense Moral Sense Sense of Honor Francis Hutcheson 1694-1746

46. Adam Smith 1723-1790 • The Wealth of Nations, 1776 • Economic Liberalism • laissez faire • The Hidden Hand • Theory of Progress

47. De l’esprit, 1758 A Treatise on Man; his Intellectual Faculties and his Education, 1772 Radical Empiricist and Determinist Human behavior completely determined by education and social environment. We seek to maximize pleasure and minimize pain…anticipates the British Utilitarians Claude Adrien Helvetius (1715-1771)

48. Immanuel Kant 1724-1804 Critique of Pure Reason, 1781 What is Enlightenment?, 1784 Critique of Practical Reason, 1788

49. DefiningCharacteristics • Reason vs Revelation • Secular • Deism • Empirical • Toleration • Freedom of Speech • Freedom of Press • Religious Freedom • Anti-clerical and anti-authoritarian • Emphasis upon Education • Equality before the Law • Cultural Relativism • Theory of Progress

50. Intellectual Assumptions of Liberal Democracy—What was the real impact of ideas in the Ancien Regime? “The Enlightenment was an Ancien Regime phenomenon. The Revolution transformed it by wrenching it, like so much else, into a new and different shape.” --William Doyle