Information Processing

1 DESIGNER AND DESIGN TEAMS byDr. Philip Datseris, ProfessorDepartment of Mechanical, Industrial and Systems EngineeringUniversity of Rhode IslandKingston, RI, USAJuly 2013

Information Processing 2 The study of human problem solving abilities is the province of the field of cognitive psychology • General Knowledge - Information that most people know from basic schooling or life experience • Domain-Specific Knowledge - Comes from study and experience in the field. One takes about 10 years to gain sufficient specific knowledge to be considered expert • Procedural Knowledge - Knowledge of what to do next; gained through experience

DETAILS ON SLIDE 2 2 A F Bolt – Yield??

3 GENERAL DESIGN PROCEDURE • Decompose problem along technical lines-mechanical, electrical/electronic, software, hardware, etc. and hire people in each area 2. Decompose problem, if possible, into manageable chunks- Exoskeleton example – simulate motion of complete system, including human leg, but only for one degree-of-freedom (DOF) system-motion only below the knee and nothing else!!!!

4 ADVANTAGES IN DECOMPOSING THE PROBLEM • The team is happy because the task is manageable and they can see results • The manager can reach a decision to either end the project or hire additional people where expertise is lacking early on the project before much money and time are used up • On the exoskeleton project-if the team cannot finish the one DOF system in a reasonable time, major decisions will be made

5 A DESIGN PARADOX: The more you learn the less freedom you have to use what you know Knowledge about the design problem

6 LINE FALLOUT AT XEROX CORPORATION In 1981, Xerox Corp. started using methods outlined here

7 DESIGN METHODOLOGY 1. Iteration is a necessary part of the design process 2. There is no guarantee that long term memory will have a solution 3. Problems have often missing or incomplete information 4. Each designer will have a different understanding of the problem-reach consensus very early on a good solution - NOT the perfect solution

7 A SLIDE 7-DETAIL-1 TIME BEGIN DESIGN COMPLETION TEAM A COMPLETION TEAM B

SLIDE 7-DETAIL-2 7 B AUTOMOBILE EXAMPLE Many early design changes require more engineering time but few changes in production lines An early design change that costs $1,000 in engineering time can cost $10,000 later in refinements and over $1M!! in tooling, sales, and goodwill expenses

8 DESIGN REFERENCES • Design Handbooks • Thomas Register – Gold mine of ideas- www.thomasregister.com • US patents- http://uspto.gov/patft/index.html • European and foreign patents- http://gb.espacenet.com/. • Soviet theory of inventive machines – www.triz-journal.com • MIT Nam Suh – www.axiomaticdesign.com

Slide 8-Details-1 8 A TRIZ-Theory of inventive machines • GenrikhAltshuller reviewed 400,000 patents – he observed similar patterns in solving problems in totally different industries • Principle of contradiction – find the major contradiction that makes the problem hard • Example of a contradiction-The part gets stronger (good) but the weight increases (bad) • Solve the hardest problem first –if this fails STOP

8 B Slide 8-Details-2 TRIZ-Theory of inventive machines Triz established forty (40) Principles to solve a problem Principle 1.Segmentation A. Divide an object into independent parts B. Make an object sectional C. Increase degree of an object’s segmentation Example:Suspension-use two shock absorbers in-line; the soft one takes the small bumps and when fully compressed, the stiffer one takes the big bumps

Slide 8-Details-3 8-C TRIZ-Theory of inventive machines Triz established forty (40) Principles to solve a problem Principle 10.Prior action A. Carry out the required action in advance B. Arrange objects so that they can go into action without time loss waiting for action Example:Suspension-this leads to the idea of an active suspension where the motion is sensed and some form of control system changes suspension stiffness and damping-has been invented by BOSE Corp.

Slide 8-Details-4 8 D BOSE ACTIVE SUSPENSION SYSTEM http://www.bose.com/controller?url=/automotive/bose_suspension/the_system.jsp FACTORY BOSE

Slide 8-Details-5 8 E TRIZ-Theory of inventive machines Triz established forty (40) Principles to solve a problem Principle 17.Moving to a new dimension • Remove problems in moving an object in a line by two-dimensional movement (along a plane) B. – D – not important in suspension Example:Suspension-This leads to the idea of using a linkage-mechanism- to get a more complex motion than what can be obtained with a simple swing arm

8 F Slide 8-Details-6 Axiomatic design by Nam Suh of MIT- based on the relationship between four (4) design domains: customer, function, physical, and process A. Two Axioms B. Thirty (30) Corollaries and Theorems that support the axioms

Slide 8-Details-7 8 G Axiomatic design by Nam Suh of MIT Axiom 1 – Independence Axiom – Maintain the independence of functional requirements This means that, ideally, a change in a specific design parameter should have an effect only on a single function – impossible but one can try Axiom 2 - Minimize the information content of the design This means that the simplest design has the highest probability of success and is the best alternative – not always true-violates Principle 17 of TRIZ

9 Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior • Problem-solving style; INTROVERT OR EXTROVERT – a person sometimes switches • Focus on Facts vs. Possibilities; REALISTIC OR DREAMER - a person sometimes switches • Objective vs. Subjective approaches • Decisive vs. Flexible perspectives There are four (4) personal problem-solving dimensions

Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior 10 Problem -Solving Style Characterized by differences between introvertandextrovertpersonalities 75% of Americans are extroverts 48% of engineering students are extroverts 48% of CEOs are extroverts

Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior 11 Problem -Solving Style: Extrovert • Extroverts need to allow others time to think (not necessary to fill every pause with words) • Extroverts need to practice listening to others’ ideas and suggestions. BRAINSTORMING. • Extroverts must be encouraged to recap to make sure they take into account other’s contributions • Extroverts must realize that silence by introverts does not always mean agreement

12 Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior Problem -Solving Style: Introvert • Introverts must be encouraged to share more than their final response-explain how they think • Enable introverts to have equal say in the selection of ideas and plans – this means that introverts’ ideas must have equal weight • Encourage introverts to always signal their dissent-introverts must speak out if the disagree • Encourage introverts to restate their ideas. This also forces extroverts to listen • Introverts to push extroverts for more clarity/meaning

Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior 13 Facts vs. Possibilities Facts people are literal, practical, realistic Possibilities people like concepts, theories, look for relationships Most cause of miscommunication, misunderstanding, and team problems 75% of Americans are fact-oriented 34% of engineering students are fact-oriented 66% of CEOs are fact-oriented

Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior 14 Facts vs. Possibilities: Facts • Encourage fact-oriented team members to give way to their imagination. BRAINSTORMING- wild ideas can lead to good ideas • Encourage fact-oriented team members to set goals rather than dive right into the problem

Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior 15 Facts vs. Possibilities: Possibilities • Encourage possibility-oriented team members to deal with details • Force possibility-oriented team members to be specific and avoid generalities • Remind possibility-oriented team members to stick to the issues

16 Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior Objectivity vs. Subjectivity Objective people are logical, detached, analytical Subjective people make decisions based upon interpersonal involvement and circumstances Greatest number of design decision require some level of subjective evaluations 51% of Americans are objective 68% of engineering students are objective 95% of CEOs are objective

Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior 17 Objectivity vs. Subjectivity: Objectivity • Encourage objective decision makers not to discard other team members’ “gut feelings” • Help objective decision makers understand that how the team functions is as important as what is accomplished • Remind objective decision makers that not everyone likes to discuss a topic just for the sake of argument • Encourage objective decision makers to sometime express how they feel about an outcome

Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior 18 Objectivity vs. Subjectivity: Subjectivity • Help subjective decision maker realize that it is acceptable to disagree and argue • Reassure subjective decision makers that while harmony is important, not every resolved issue will satisfy everyone even if a consensus is reached • Reinforce to subjective decision makers that discussions about ideas are not personal attacks

Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior 19 Decisiveness vs. Flexibility Decisive people are ordered, scheduled, controlled, and deliberate Flexible people are adaptive, spontaneous, and have a tendency to procrastinate 50% of Americans are decisive 64% of engineering students are decisive 88% of CEOs are decisive

Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior 20 Decisiveness vs. Flexibility: Decisiveness • Ask decisive people questions about their decision process • Let decisive people organize data collection and review process • Use techniques such as brainstorming to suppress judgement. Do not settle on the first good idea • Remind decisive people that they are not always right

Mental Processing: Problem-Solving Behavior 21 Decisiveness vs. Flexibility: Flexibility • Give flexible decision makers plans in advance • Acknowledge the flexible decision maker’s contribution as a step toward moving to closure • Set clear decision deadline in advance • Get feedback from flexible decision makers to enable them to think about the direction of their thoughts • Encourage flexible decision makers to settle on something and live with it

Characteristics of a Creative Designer 22 • It must solve the problem • It must be original A creative solution must meet two (2) criteria

Characteristics of a Creative Designer 23 Intelligence There appears to be little correlation between creativity and intelligence 1. Some engineers may be brilliant at complex analysis but are not capable of coming up with a new concept no matter how hard they try!! 2. There is a significant amount of research to understand creativity but it’s still not well understood

Characteristics of a Creative Designer 24 Visualization Ability • Creative engineers have good ability to visualize, to generate and manipulate visual images in their heads • They use sketches as an external extension of their short-term memory • There is little difference in individuals in the ability of visualize very simple images • However, the ability to manipulate complex images of mechanical devices can be improved in practice

Characteristics of a Creative Designer 25 Knowledge • Designers start with what they know and modify it to solve the specific of the problem posed to them • At every step, the process involves small movements away from the known, even though the latter are anchored in past experiences • The designer must also be able to evaluate the viability of ideas • Ideas that are original but un-workable are therefore NOT creative

Characteristics of a Creative Designer 26 • Creative designers have the ability to decompose and manipulate stored knowledge • This attribute strengthens with exercise Partial Solution Manipulation

Characteristics of a Creative Designer 27 Risk Taking • Fear of making a mistake is characteristic of non-creative individuals • THOMAS EDISON tried hundreds of different lightbulb designs before he discovered the carbon filament • Even GOD failed in his first attempt when he designed and created the man; he succeeded in his second design and created a much better product-the woman!!

Characteristics of a Creative Designer 28 • Creative people tend to be non-conformists • Constructive nonconformists take a stand because they think they are right-GOOD • Obstructive nonconformists take a stand just to have an opposite view-BAD Conformity

Characteristics of a Creative Designer 29 Technique Creative designers have more than one approach to problem solving

Characteristics of a Creative Designer 30 Environment Work environments that encourage risk taking, nonconformity, new ideas, thus promote creativity

Characteristics of a Creative Designer 31 Practice Creativity can improve with practice

32 Engineering Design Teams The Boeing 747 has 5 million components and required 10 thousand person years of design, thus cannot be solved by a single designer

Engineering Design Teams 33 Definition A team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, common performance goals, and a common approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable

Engineering Design Teams: Team Goals 34 • Team members must learn to collaborate • Teams are generally empowered to make decisions and must compromiseto reach them • Developing decisions by consensus rather than by authority lead to more robust decisions

Engineering Design Teams: Team Goals 35 • Team members must learn to establish communication-proper communication!! • Team members must have a shared vision, which requires a rich understanding of the problem • It is important that team members and management be committed to the good of the team

SLIDE 35-DETAIL-1 35 A Proper Communication Critique a member’s work but be NICE!!! His work is his “baby.” You never tell parents that their baby is UGLY!!

SLIDE 35-DETAIL-2 35 B Shared Vision • All team members must be immersed in the project • Team members must dream about the project every night!!

SLIDE 35-DETAIL-3 35 C Good of the Team Healthy social processes within team members are as important for success, as technical and cognitive processes

SLIDE 35-DETAIL-4TOUGH DECISIONS-DELL 35 D DELL COMPUTERS – Reference-“Direct from Dell”, by Michael Dell: Dell Corporation almost went bankrupt when sales reached $1B.-Solution implemented by outside consultants – fire all friends and relatives that built Dell and hire top executives from General Electric Corporation

SLIDE 35-DETAIL-5DEADLINE leads to TWITTER 35 E Twitter was “born” from Odeo, Inc., a software company, South Park, San Francisco, California Odeo Inc. was facing tremendous competition from Apple and the board was not feeling optimistic-a deadline was given. “Rebooting” or reinventing the company started with a daylong brainstorming session where they broke up into teams to talk about their best ideas

Information Processing