托福阅读最essential题型

1. 托福阅读最essential题型 细节题

2. 题目类型： • 问物 （which of the following is true of X?） • 问事：原因/结果

3. 1.分析题干 让我们找的是什么？ 我们应该定位什么？（确定关键词） 2.定位到原文，确定答案的范围 3.看哪一个选项和原文能够形成同义替换

4. 错误选项的特征 • 无端比较 • 和原文直接相反 • 无中生有 • 信息杂糅

5. 问物（which of the following is true of）

6. Paragraph 2: Arid lands, surprisingly, contain some of the world’s largest river systems, such as the Murray-Darling in Australia, the Rio Grande in North America, the Indus in Asia, and the Nile in Africa. These rivers and river systems are known as "exogenous" because their sources lie outside the arid zone. They are vital for sustaining life in some of the driest parts of the world. For centuries, the annual floods of the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates, for example, have brought fertile silts and water to the inhabitants of their lower valleys. Today, river discharges are increasingly controlled by human intervention, creating a need for international river-basin agreements. The filling of the Ataturk and other dams in Turkey has drastically reduced flows in the Euphrates, with potentially serious consequences for Syria and Iraq. 4. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true of the Nile River? ○The Nile's flow in its desert sections is at its lowest during the dry season ○The Nile's sources are located in one of the most arid zones of the world ○The Nile's annual floods bring fertile silts and water to its lower valley ○The Nile's periodic flooding hinders the growth of some crops

7. Paragraph 1: The shift from silent to sound film at the end of the 1920s marks, so far, the most important transformation in motion picture history. Despite all the highly visible technological developments in theatrical and home delivery of the moving image that have occurred over the decades since then, no single innovation has come close to being regarded as a similar kind of watershed. In nearly every language, however the words are phrased, the most basic division in cinema history lies between films that are mute and films that speak. 2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is the most significant development in the history of film? ○The technological innovation of sound film during the 1920s ○The development of a technology for translating films into other languages ○The invention of a method for delivering movies to people's homes ○The technological improvements allowing clearer images in films

8. Paragraph 4: Though it may be difficult to imagine from a later perspective, a strain of critical opinion in the 1920s predicted that sound film would be a technical novelty that would soon fade from sight, just as had many previous attempts, dating well back before the First World War, to link images with recorded sound. These critics were making a common assumption—that the technological inadequacies of earlier efforts (poor synchronization, weak sound amplification, fragile sound recordings) would invariably occur again. To be sure, their evaluation of the technical flaws in 1920s sound experiments was not so far off the mark, yet they neglected to take into account important new forces in the motion picture field that, in a sense, would not take no for an answer. 10. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true about the technical problems of early sound films? ○Linking images with recorded sound was a larger obstacle than weak sound amplification or fragile sound recordings. ○Sound films in the 1920s were unable to solve the technical flaws found in sound films before the First World War. ○Technical inadequacies occurred less frequently in early sound films than critics suggested. ○Critics assumed that it would be impossible to overcome the technical difficulties experienced with earlier sound films.

9. Paragraph 2: From north to south in the Yucatan Peninsula,where the Maya lived, rainfall ranges from 18 to 100 inches (457 to 2,540 millimeters) per year, and the soils become thicker, so that the southern peninsula was agriculturally more productive and supported denser populations. But rainfall in the Maya homeland is unpredictably variable between years; some recent years have had three or four times more rain than other years. As a result, modern farmers attempting to grow corn in the ancient Maya homelands have faced frequent crop failures, especially in the north. The ancient Maya were presumably more experienced and did better, but nevertheless they too must have faced risks of crop failures from droughts and hurricanes. 3. Which of the following statements about ancient and modern agriculture in the Yucatan Peninsula is supported by paragraph 2? ○Modern agricultural methods have solved many of the ancient problems of farming in the Yucatan Peninsula. ○Ancient Mayan farmers may have been somewhat more successful at farming in the Yucatan Peninsula than farmers are today. ○Farming today is easier than in the past because environmental changes in the Yucatan Peninsula have increased available rainfall ○The Yucatan soils in which ancient farmers worked were richer, more productive, and thicker than they are today.

10. Paragraph 3: Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships. This happens in many work settings. People on the job often develop close relationships with coworkers as they come to share gripes, jokes, gossip, and satisfactions. 5. According to paragraph 3, what do sociologists see as the main difference between primary and secondary groups? ○ Primary groups consist of people working together, while secondary groups exist outside of work settings. ○ In primary groups people are seen as means, while in secondary groups people are seen as ends. ○ Primary groups involve personal relationships, while secondary groups are mainly practical in purpose. ○ Primary groups are generally small, while secondary groups often contain more than two people

11. 问原因

12. Paragraph 3: Early in his research, Kramer found that caged migratory birds became very restless at about the time they would normally have begun migration in the wild. Furthermore, he noticed that as they fluttered around in the cage, they often launched themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route. He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. Kramer surmised, therefore, that they were orienting according to the position of the Sun. To test this idea, he blocked their view of the Sun and used mirrors to change its apparent position. He found that under these circumstances, the birds oriented with respect to the new "Sun." They seemed to be using the Sun as a compass to determine direction. At the time, this idea seemed preposterous. How could a bird navigate by the Sun when some of us lose our way with road maps? Obviously, more testing was in order. 5. According to paragraph 3, why did Kramer use mirrors to change the apparent position of the Sun? ○ To test the effect of light on the birds' restlessness ○ To test whether birds were using the Sun to navigate ○ To simulate the shifting of light the birds would encounter along their regular migratory route ○ To cause the birds to migrate at a different time than they would in the wild

13. Paragraph 5: In experimenting with artificial suns, Kramer made another interesting discovery. If the artificial Sun remained stationary, the birds would shift their direction with respect to it at a rate of about 15 degrees per hour, the Sun's rate of movement across the sky. Apparently, the birds were assuming that the "Sun" they saw was moving at that rate. When the real Sun was visible, however, the birds maintained a constant direction as it moved across the sky. In other words, they were able to compensate for the Sun's movement. This meant that some sort of biological clock was operating-and a very precise clock at that. 8. According to paragraph 5, how did the birds fly when the real Sun was visible? ○ They kept the direction of their flight constant. ○ They changed the direction of their flight at a rate of 15 degrees per hour. ○ They kept flying toward the Sun. ○ They flew in the same direction as the birds that were seeing the artificial Sun.

14. Paragraph 1: Pastoralism is a lifestyle in which economic activity is based primarily on livestock. Archaeological evidence suggests that by 3000 B.C., and perhaps even earlier, there had emerged on the steppes of Inner Eurasia the distinctive types of pastoralism that were to dominate the region's history for several millennia. Here, the horse was already becoming the animal of prestige in many regions, though sheep, goats, and cattle could also play a vital role. It is the use of horses for transportation and warfare that explains why Inner Eurasian pastoralism proved the most mobile and the most militaristic of all major forms of pastoralism. The emergence and spread of pastoralism had a profound impact on the history of Inner Eurasia, and also, indirectly, on the parts of Asia and Europe just outside this area. In particular, pastoralism favors a mobile lifestyle, and this mobility helps to explain the impact of pastoralist societies on this part of the world. 2. According to paragraph 1, what made it possible for Inner Eurasian pastoralism to become the most mobile and militaristic form of pastoralism? ○It involved the domestication of several types of animals. ○It was based primarily on horses rather than on other animals. ○It borrowed and improved upon European ideas for mobility and warfare. ○It could be adapted to a wide variety of environments.

15. Paragraph 3：Early in his research, Kramer found that caged migratory birds became very restless at about the time they would normally have begun migration in the wild. Furthermore, he noticed that as they fluttered around in the cage, they often launched themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route. He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. Kramer surmised, therefore, that they were orienting according to the position of the Sun. To test this idea, he blocked their view of the Sun and used mirrors to change its apparent position. He found that under these circumstances, the birds oriented with respect to the new "Sun." They seemed to be using the Sun as a compass to determine direction. At the time, this idea seemed preposterous .How could a bird navigate by the Sun when some of us lose our way with road maps? Obviously, more testing was in order. 6. According to paragraph 3, when do caged starlings become restless? • When the weather is overcast • When they are unable to identify their normal migratory route • When their normal time for migration arrives • When mirrors are used to change the apparent position of the Sun

16. Paragraph 5: In experimenting with artificial suns, Kramer made another interesting discovery. If the artificial Sun remained stationary, the birds would shift their direction with respect to it at a rate of about 15 degrees per hour, the Sun's rate of movement across the sky. Apparently, the birds were assuming that the "Sun" they saw was moving at that rate. When the real Sun was visible, however, the birds maintained a constant direction as it moved across the sky. In other words, they were able to compensate for the Sun's movement. This meant that some sort of biological clock was operating-and a very precise clock at that. 9. The experiment described in paragraph 5 caused Kramer to conclude that birds possess a biological clock because ○ when birds navigate they are able to compensate for the changing position of the Sun in the sky ○ birds innate bearings keep them oriented in a direction that is within 15 degrees of the Suns direction ○ birds' migration is triggered by natural environmental cues, such as the position of the Sun ○ birds shift their direction at a rate of 15 degrees per hour whether the Sun is visible or not

17. Paragraph 3: Statues were normally made of stone, wood, or metal. Stone statues were worked from single rectangular blocks of material and retained the compactness of the original shape. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually enhanced by a supporting back pillar.By contrast, wooden statues were carved from several pieces of wood that were pegged together to form the finished work, and metal statues were either made by wrapping sheet metal around a wooden core or cast by the lost wax process. The arms could be held away from the body and carry separate items in their hands; there is no back pillar. The effect is altogether lighter and freer than that achieved in stone, but because both perform the same function, formal wooden and metal statues still display frontality. 8. According to paragraph 3, why were certain areas of a stone statue left uncarved? ○ To prevent damage by providing physical stability ○ To emphasize that the material was as important as the figure itself ○ To emphasize that the figure was not meant to be a real human being ○ To provide another artist with the chance to finish the carving

18. Paragraph 4: Cities, then, are warmer than the surrounding rural areas, and together they produce a phenomenon known as the urban heat island. Heat islands develop best under particular conditions associated with light winds, but they can form almost any time. The precise configuration of a heat island depends on several factors. For example, the wind can make a heat island stretch in the direction it blows. When a heat island is well developed, variations can be extreme; in winter, busy streets in cities can be 17℃ warmer than the side streets. Areas near traffic lights can be similarly warmer than the areas between them because of the effect of cars standing in traffic instead of moving. The maxirnurn differences in temperature between neighboring urban and rural environments is called the heat-island actual level of intensity depends on such factors as the physical layout, population density, and productive activities of a metropolis. According to paragraph 4, what can explain the substantial differences in temperature between one area and another within a well-developed heat island? • The overall size of the heat island that includes the two areas • The intensity of the heat island that includes the two areas • Differences between the two areas in the general level of activity, including traffic • Differences between the two areas in the insulation materials used in construction

19. Paragraph 5: In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear. Lesley Maynard, the archaeologist who coined the phrase "Panaramiree style," suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style (outlines of figures and animals), followed by a range of complex figurative styles that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition tended to much greater regional diversity. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of Those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years, a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence-a development from the simple and the geometric to the complex and naturalistic-obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. In this context the simplicity of a geometric motif may be more apparent than real. Motifs of seeming simplicity can encode complex meanings in Aboriginal Australia. And has not twentieth-century art shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermined sequence? According to paragraph 5. the complex figurative style differs from the geometric style in that the complex figurative style • varies significantly from region to region • is more meaningful • appears on only a few types of rocks • has changed little overtime

20. Paragraph 4: Two additional techniques of studying infant perception have come into vogue. The first is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in which a single stimulus is presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a measurable decline (habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being observed. At that point a new stimulus is presented, and any recovery (dishabituation) in responsiveness is recorded. If the infant fails to dishabituate and continues to show habituation with the new stimulus, it is assumed that the baby is unable to perceive the new stimulus as different. The habituation-dishabituation paradigm has been used most extensively with studies of auditory and olfactory perception in infants. The second technique relies on evoked potentials, which are electrical brain responses that may be related to a particular stimulus because of where they originate. Changes in the electrical pattern of the brain indicate that the stimulus is getting through to the infant's central nervous system and eliciting some form of response. 10. According to paragraph 4, which of the following leads to the conclusion that infants are able to differentiate between stimuli in a habituation-dishabituation study? ○Dishabituation occurs with the introduction of a new stimulus. ○Electrical responses in the infant's brain decline with each new stimulus. ○Habituation is continued with the introduction of a new stimulus. ○The infant displays little change in electrical brain responses.

21. 问结果/目的

22. Paragraph 2: Apart from this, being able to give up labor-intensive grain production freed both the land and the workforce for more productive agricultural divisions. The peasants specialized in livestock husbandry and dairy farming as well as in cultivating industrial crops and fodder crops: flax, madder, and rape were grown, as were tobacco, hopes and turnipps. These products were bought mostly by urban businesses. There was also a demand among urban consumers for dairy products such as butter and cheese, which, in the sixteenth century, had become more expensive than grain. The high prices encouraged the peasants to improve their animal husbandry techniques; for example, they began feeding theirs animal indoors in order to raise the milk yield of their cows. According to paragraph 2, the increased demands on Dutch agriculture made by urban consumers had which of the following results? • Seasonal shortages of the products consumers most wanted • Increased production of high-quality grain products • Raised prices charged by peasants to urban consumers • Different ways of caring for dairy-producing animals

23. Paragraph 1: In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity —turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth — have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities. 1. Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to observe the ○range of motor activity in neonates ○frequency and duration of various stimuli ○change in an infant's state following the introduction of a stimulus ○range of an infant's visual field

24. Paragraph 2: The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. While agriculturalists rely on domesticated plants, pastoralists rely on domesticated animals. As a result, pastoralists, like carnivores in general, occupy a higher position on the food chain. All else being equal, this means they must exploit larger areas of land than do agriculturalists to secure the same amount of food, clothing, and other necessities. So pastoralism is a more extensive lifeway than farming is. However, the larger the terrain used to support a group, the harder it is to exploit that terrain while remaining in one place. So, basic ecological principles imply a strong tendency within pastoralist lifeways toward nomadism (a mobile lifestyle). As the archaeologist Roger Cribb puts it, “The greater the degree of pastoralism, the stronger the tendency toward nomadism.” A modern Turkic nomad interviewed by Cribb commented: "The more animals you have, the farther you have to move." 5. According to paragraph 2, pastoralists tend to ○prefer grazing their animals on agricultural lands ○consume comparatively large amounts of food and clothing ○avoid eating plant foods ○move from place to place frequently

25. Paragraph 4: Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills. 9. According to paragraph 4, the fact that pastoralist communities are subject to “strict rules of portability” encourages such communities to ○relocate less frequently than they would otherwise ○have households that are more or less equal in wealth ○become self-sufficient in the manufacture of silk and jewelry ○share large material surpluses with neighboring communities