ARGUMENTATION IN ACADEMIC WRITING

1. ARGUMENTATION IN ACADEMIC WRITING EN 112 BMCC Fall, 2009

2. What is argumentation? http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/cartoons1.gif/argument.gif HERE ARE SOME COMMON SENSE BELIEFS: • Argumentation is a form of fight • It is something that has winners and losers • “Every issue has two sides”; one side has to be right, and the other side has to be wrong • The purpose of argumentation is to win • Argumentation is the same as persuasion

3. ACADEMIC ARGUMENTATION • http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/cartoons1.gif/argument.gif • ACADEMIC ARGUMENTATION IS DIFFERENT • The purpose is to learn the truth and to avoid errors • Academic arguments describe multiple arguments and multiple perspectives • The counterargument is an important component of the argument • Unbiased language is used • Logic, reason and solid evidence are preferred over emotion • Logical errors (fallacies) are to be avoided • The purpose of persuasion is opening minds first (change of opinion may follow)

4. THREE MODELS OF ARGUMENTATIONMODEL ONE: Classic Aristotelian Aristotle (BC 384-322) • Our knowledge is not absolutely certain (=most of what we know is a well-informed opinion at best) • Argumentation is necessary in court, politics and science, and young people need to be trained in argumentation just like they need to be trained in athletics • Arguments rely on three elements ethos (values, credibility)logos pathos (emotions, compassion, suffering) (knowledge, facts, statistics, evidence, logic, reasoning)

5. THREE MODELS OF ARGUMENTATIONMODEL TWO: Modern Toulminian (1958) Stephen Toulmin (1922 - 2009) • Toulmin’s argumentative structure was designed to serve practical purposes, to value scientific evidence and to find common ground for ethical arguments • It is primarily based on evidence (facts, statistics, reasoning, research) • “Warrant” is the assumption that connects the facts with the claims

6. THREE MODELS OF ARGUMENTATIONMODEL THREE: Rogerian Carl Rogers (1902-1987) • The purpose of argumentation is to build bridges between human beings, to find the common ground, to reach a win-win situation and practice emphatic listening • Rogerian argument is used in counseling, advising, business, recruitment, etc.

7. Rogerian argumentation in 4 easy dance moves: • Introduce problem: I know you all love your steak, and I myself have eaten my fair share of meat in life. • Acknowledge opposition: I understand that you think meat is necessary for growth, but I am telling you that there are other sources of protein, not just meat. • Present position: On the other hand, if we don’t reduce our meat consumption, the Earth will face a disaster, and our health will deteriorate rapidly. • Explain why your position benefits opposition: We need to eat less meat. Right now, we consume seven times more than what is recommended. I am sure you don’t want to be sick, and I know you care about the Earth, which right now is feeding too many cattle.

8. What else is there? • ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY: • Is A like B or not? The strengths of an argument from analogy depends on the level of similarity EXAMPLES: • 9/11 was like Pearl Harbor (=a war attack) • Government supported health insurance is like socialism (=not good!) • A fetus is like an adult citizen (=should have full rights) • Food is medicine (=use it with moderation and to keep yourself healthy) • Animals are like people (=have feelings and need to be treated with respect)

9. Research papers are argumentative • They have an arguable claim (=something that not everybody agrees on) • The introduction explains the significance of the topic • The claim is supported by facts, by credible sources (experts, authorities), statistics, examples, personal experience (the writer’s or others), possible consequences (Atwan, 2009, pp. 17-18) • At least one “opposition” (or challenging opinion) is addressed (refuted) • Overly emotional or biased language is avoided