Chapter 1 The Evolution of Psychology

1. Chapter 1 The Evolution of Psychology

2. History • What is Psychology? The science of behavior and mental processes Behavior—observable actions of a person or animal Mind—thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives and other subjective experiences Science--an objective way to answer questions based on observable facts/data and well-described methods • Separated from philosophy in 19th century • influences from physiology remain

3. Philosophical Developments • A Question: How are mind and body related? • René Descartes (1596–1650)—Interactive dualism • The mind and body interact to produce conscious experience BIG

4. Philosophical Developments BIG • Another Question: Nature vs. Nurture • Are abilities determined by our genes or our experiences? • What are the interactions between genetics and environment? • What effect does it have on behavior?

5. Psychology: Birth of a New Science • Prior to 1879 • Physiology + Philosophy = Psychology • Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) University of Leipzig, Germany • Established the first laboratory for the study of psychology in 1879 • Psychology was born

6. Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) • Leipzig, Germany • The “father of psychology” • Founder of modern psychology • Opened the first psychology lab in 1879 • wrote the first psychology textbook • applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind

7. Psychology Goes International • Leipzig, the place to study psychology • Graduates of Wundt’s program set up new labs across Europe and North America • G.Stanley Hall (1846-1924) Johns Hopkins University • Established the first psychology laboratory in the U.S. in 1883 • Between 1883 and 1893, 24 new laboratories in North America

8. The Battle of the “Schools” in the U.S.: Titchener vs. James • Two intellectual schools of thought regarding the science of psychology • Structrualism – led by Edward Titchener • Functionalism – led by William James • Structuralists focused on analyzing consciousness into basic elements • Introspection – careful, systematic observations of one’s own conscious experience • Functionalists focused on investigating the function or purpose of consciousness

9. E.B. Titchener (1867–1927) • Wundt’s student, professor at Cornell University • Analyzed the intensity, clarity and quality of the parts of consciousness • Founder of structuralism

10. Structuralism • Studied the basic elements (structure) of thoughts and sensations. • identify ‘atoms’ of the mind • focused on basic sensory and perceptual processes • measured reaction times

11. William James (1842–1910) • First American psychologist • Started psychology at Harvard in 1870s • Opposed Wundt and Titchener’s approach • Author of the first psychology textbook • Founder of Functionalism • functionalism – influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment

12. Functionalism • Emphasized studying the function of consciousness and how consciousness helped people adapt to their environment

13. Who Won the Battle? • Most historians give the edge to James and the functionalists • Today, psychologists are not really categorized as structuralists or functionalists • Applied psychology and Behaviorism - descendants of functionalism • Behaviorism - early 1900’s • The next major school of thought to influence the development of psychology

14. Behaviorism: Goodbye to Consciousness • John B. Watson (1878-1958): United States of America • Founder of Behaviorism • Psychology = scientific study of behavior • Behavior = overt or observable responses or activities • Radical reorientation of psychology as a science of observable behavior

15. Doctor, Lawyer, Beggar-man, Thief: Watson and the Nature-Nurture Debate • Watson’s famous quote • Nurture, not nature • Behaviorist school of thought emphasized the environment (nurture) • Focus on stimulus-response relationships • S-R psychology

16. John B. Watson (1878-1958)

17. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) • Behaviorist • Russian Physiologist • Studied learning through associations in animals • Emphasized the study of observable behaviors

18. Behaviorism: B.F. Skinner • B.F. Skinner (1904-1990): United States of America • Environmental factors determine behavior • Responses that lead to positive outcomes are repeated • Responses that lead to negative outcomes are not repeated • Beyond Freedom and Dignity • More controversy regarding free will

19. B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) • Behaviorist • American psychologist at Harvard • Focused on learning through rewards and observation • studied learning and effect of reinforcement

20. Freud: the Unconscious Mind • Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): Austria • Founded Psychoanalytic school of thought • Emphasis on unconscious processes influencing behavior • Unconscious = outside awareness

21. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) • Austrian physician that focused on illness • Founder of the psychoanalytic perspective • Believed that abnormal behavior originated from unconscious drives and conflicts

22. Freud’s Influence • Influence on “pop culture” • Freudian slips • Anal-retentive • Influence on psychology • Psychodynamic theory • Unconscious thoughts • Significance of childhood experiences

23. Freud’s Ideas: Controversy and Influence • Behavior is influenced by the unconscious • Unconscious conflict related to sexuality plays a central role in behavior • Controversial notions caused debate/resistance • Significant influence on the field of psychology

24. The 1950’s: Opposition to Psychoanalytic Theory and Behaviorism Develops • Charges that both were dehumanizing • Diverse opposition groups got together to form a loose alliance • Humanism was born • Led by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987) • Emphasis on the unique qualities of humans: freedom and personal growth

25. Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow(1902-1987) (1908-1970) • Helped to create Humanistic Psychology • Stressed the study of conscious experience and an individual’s free will • Healthy individuals strive to reach their potential.

26. Putting the Psyche Back in Psychology: The Return of Cognition • Cognition = mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge • 1950’s and 60’s – Piaget, Chomsky, and Simon • Application of scientific methods to studying internal mental events • Cognitive psychology: the new dominant perspective?

27. Biological Psychology: The Biological Basis of Behavior • James Olds (1956) • Electrical stimulation of the brain evokes emotional responses in animals • Roger Sperry (1981) • Left and right brain specialization • Biological Perspective = behavior explained in terms of physiological processes

28. Evolutionary Psychology: Functionalism Revisited • Central premise: natural selection occurs for behavioral, as well as physical, characteristics • Buss, Daly & Wilson, Cosmides & Tooby – 80’s and 90’s • Studied natural selection of mating preferences, jealousy, aggression, sexual behavior, language, decision making, personality, and development • Thought provoking perspective gaining in influence, but not without criticism

29. Contemporary Psychology: Cultural Diversity • Ethnocentrism – viewing one’s own group as superior and as the standard for judging • Historically: middle and upper class white males studying middle and upper class white males • 1980’s – increased interest in how cultural factors influence behavior • growing global interdependence • increased cultural diversity

30. Psychology Today: A Multifaceted Field • Psychology - the science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems. • Research : Seven major areas • Applied Psychology: Four major areas

32. Studying Psychology: Seven Organizing Themes • Themes related to psychology as a field of study: • Psychology is empirical (Theme 1), theoretically diverse (Theme 2), and it evolves in a sociohistorical context (Theme 3). • Themes related to psychology’s subject matter: • Behavior is determined by multiple causes (Theme 4), shaped by cultural heritage (Theme 5), and influenced jointly by heredity and environment (Theme 6). • Finally, people’s experience of the world is highly subjective (Theme 7).

33. Figure 1.6 Leading college majors. This list shows the ten most popular undergraduate majors in the United States, based on the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded in 1992–1993. As you can see, psychology ranked second only to business administration and management in the number of degrees awarded. (Data from U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1995)

34. The Future • 1. Business Administration and Management/Commerce • 2. Psychology • 3. Nursing • 4. Biology/Biological Sciences • 5. Education • 6. English Language and Literature • 7. Economics • 8. Communications Studies/Speech Communication and Rhetoric • 9. Political Science and Government • 10. Computer and Information Sciences Source: Princeton Review Jan. 2011

35. Figure 1.7 Employment of psychologists by setting. The work settings in which psychologists are employed have become quite diverse. Survey data on the primary employment setting of APA members indicate that one-third are in private practice (compared to 12% in 1976) and only 27% work in colleges and universities (compared to 47% in 1976). These data may slightly underestimate the percentage of psychologists in academia, given the new competition between APA and APS to represent research psychologists. (Data based on 1997 APA)

36. Figure 1.8 Major research areas in contemporary psychology. Most research psychologists specialize in one of the seven broad areas described here. The figures in the pie chart reflect the percentage of academic and research psychologists belonging to APA who identify each area as their primary interest. (Data based on 1997 APA Directory Survey)

37. Figure 1.9 Principal professional specialties in contemporary psychology. Most psychologists who deliver professional services to the public specialize in one of the four areas described here. The figures in the pie chart reflect the percentage APA members delivering professional services who identify each area as their chief specialty. (Data based on 1997 APA Directory Survey)