The Watergate Scandal: Did the System Work

1. The Watergate Scandal: Did the System Work? How the Watergate Scandal upheld the principle no man is above the law, and led to a series of reforms to restrain executive power, but also produced unintended consequences for American politics This lecture deals with The Watergate Scandal of 1972-1974 and its legacies. We want to ask, did the system work? By this I mean, can we say the system of justice upheld the principle that no man is above the law, even the President of the United States? We want to examine the major reforms that followed the resignation of President Nixon and the effectiveness of the laws put in place to restrain executive power and prerogative. We also want to investigate some of the unintended consequences of the Watergate Scandal for American politics. Did knowing in intimate detail so much about what goes on within the confines of the Oval Office really improve American political life? This lecture deals with The Watergate Scandal of 1972-1974 and its legacies. We want to ask, did the system work? By this I mean, can we say the system of justice upheld the principle that no man is above the law, even the President of the United States? We want to examine the major reforms that followed the resignation of President Nixon and the effectiveness of the laws put in place to restrain executive power and prerogative. We also want to investigate some of the unintended consequences of the Watergate Scandal for American politics. Did knowing in intimate detail so much about what goes on within the confines of the Oval Office really improve American political life?

2. Please turn your Cells Phones Off One of the heroes of the Watergate scandal is Democratic Senator Sam Irvin. Senator from North Carolina from 1954 to 1974, Sam Ervin was a member of the Senate Judiciary Committee. He led a special Senate Select Committee to Investigate Campaign Practices or the Senate Watergate Committee. His knowledge of constitutional law and his tireless pursuit of the connections between the Committee to Re-Elect the President and the White House eventually led to revelations from Nixon�s Attorney General, L. Patrick Grey, and Nixon�s legal council, John Dean. Dean�s explosive testimony and the revelation that Nixon had a taping system in the White House sealed Nixon�s fate.One of the heroes of the Watergate scandal is Democratic Senator Sam Irvin. Senator from North Carolina from 1954 to 1974, Sam Ervin was a member of the Senate Judiciary Committee. He led a special Senate Select Committee to Investigate Campaign Practices or the Senate Watergate Committee. His knowledge of constitutional law and his tireless pursuit of the connections between the Committee to Re-Elect the President and the White House eventually led to revelations from Nixon�s Attorney General, L. Patrick Grey, and Nixon�s legal council, John Dean. Dean�s explosive testimony and the revelation that Nixon had a taping system in the White House sealed Nixon�s fate.

3. Themes and Topics Role of Government Presidential Leadership Methods for Conducting Foreign Policy: Nixon's "realpolitik" and Detente Foreign Policies Political Impact of Watergate on American Politics Congressional Challenges to the "Imperial Presidency" Cultural Change Growing Skepticism toward Authority and Tradition in 1970s Role of the Media in Challenging Authority*

4. The Election of 1972 Nixon faced Senator George McGovern in the General Election. McGovern was an explicitly antiwar candidate who had won the nomination as a result of new rules governing the selection process adopted by the Democratic Party after the 1968 debacle. The new rules empowered activists in primaries over the elected Democratic Party Leadership which had traditionally controlled the nomination process. McGovern had not been the party leaderships choice. In the Campaign McGovern had selected Senator Thomas Eagleton of Missouri as his running mate. During the campaign Eagleton revealed he had received electric shock treatment, a therapy that seemed to disqualify him to be president. At first McGovern swore he was 100% behind Eagleton. Then he asked for his resignation. The Eagleton Affair made McGovern appear weak and indecisive. Nixon ate him alive. The 1972 election stands in sharp contrast to Nixon�s performance in the 1968 election that made him President. In 1968, Nixon had gathered only 43% of the popular vote (although in won a decisive victory in the Electoral College). In the 1972 election Nixon delivered one of the most devastating defeats to a Democratic Party candidate in American history. Nixon gathered more than 60% of the popular vote and over 90% of the Electoral College vote. Only the state of Massachusetts and the District of Columbia gave McGovern majorities. McGovern even lost his home state of South Dakota! Nixon�s 17% increase in popular vote demonstrated that the foreign policy of realpolitik and the centrist domestic policy. Make no mistake, Nixon was a popular president in 1972. But the Watergate Scandal raises the question, to what extent had the President manipulated the political system to produce such an overwhelming outcome and was this manipulation illegal?Nixon faced Senator George McGovern in the General Election. McGovern was an explicitly antiwar candidate who had won the nomination as a result of new rules governing the selection process adopted by the Democratic Party after the 1968 debacle. The new rules empowered activists in primaries over the elected Democratic Party Leadership which had traditionally controlled the nomination process. McGovern had not been the party leaderships choice. In the Campaign McGovern had selected Senator Thomas Eagleton of Missouri as his running mate. During the campaign Eagleton revealed he had received electric shock treatment, a therapy that seemed to disqualify him to be president. At first McGovern swore he was 100% behind Eagleton. Then he asked for his resignation. The Eagleton Affair made McGovern appear weak and indecisive. Nixon ate him alive. The 1972 election stands in sharp contrast to Nixon�s performance in the 1968 election that made him President. In 1968, Nixon had gathered only 43% of the popular vote (although in won a decisive victory in the Electoral College). In the 1972 election Nixon delivered one of the most devastating defeats to a Democratic Party candidate in American history. Nixon gathered more than 60% of the popular vote and over 90% of the Electoral College vote. Only the state of Massachusetts and the District of Columbia gave McGovern majorities. McGovern even lost his home state of South Dakota! Nixon�s 17% increase in popular vote demonstrated that the foreign policy of realpolitik and the centrist domestic policy. Make no mistake, Nixon was a popular president in 1972. But the Watergate Scandal raises the question, to what extent had the President manipulated the political system to produce such an overwhelming outcome and was this manipulation illegal?

5. The Watergate Affair A presidential resignation, the first and only one in US history Richard M. Nixon August 9, 1974 What caused it? Three resolutions of impeachment passed by the House Judiciary Committee in late July 1974 Obstruction of Justice Abuse of Power Violations of the Separation of Powers The Watergate Affair: On 9 August 1974, the 37th President of the United States, Richard Millhouse Nixon, resigned from office rather than face a certain trial in the U.S. Senate on three charges of impeachment against him which the House of Representatives would soon vote upon. The three impeachment resolutions had been approved by the House Judiciary Committee between July 27 and July 31, 1974. In these resolutions Richard Nixon had been accused of high crimes and misdemeanors, including: Obstruction of Justice: Nixon was accused of "using the powers of his high office" to engage "personally and through his subordinates and agents, in a course of conduct or plan designed to delay, impede, and obstruct the investigation of" a burglary at the Democratic National Headquarters, and "to cover up, conceal and protect those responsible; and to conceal the existence and scope of other unlawful covert activities." Abuse of power and violations of constitutional rights of citizens. Nixon was accused of a variety of abuses of power: 1. endeavoring to obtain from the IRS confidential information contained in income tax returns for purposes not authorized by law; seeking to initiate income tax audits and investigations against his enemies. 2. engaged in electronic surveillance using the FBI, Secret Service, and other executive personnel for purposes unrelated to national security or any other lawful function of his office. 3. created and used a secret investigative unit financed by campaign funding, utilizing CIA resources to engage in covert and unlawful activities. Violations of constitutional separation of powers on the issue of impeachment. 1. Nixon was accused of failure to cooperate with the House Judiciary Committee in its lawful investigation of misconduct by the Nixon administration. The Committee had subpoenaed papers and other information from the administration on four occasions in 1974. Nixon was accused of failing without lawful cause or excuse to produce those papers and information. 2. By not responding, Nixon was accused of "substituting his judgment as to what materials were necessary for the inquiry, interposed the powers of the Presidency against the lawful subpoenas of the House of Representatives, thereby assuming to himself functions and judgments necessary to the exercise of the sole power of impeachment." Two other impeachment resolutions had been considered by the Committee, but rejected. Nevertheless, the prospect of certain conviction in the Senate led Nixon to quit rather than fight on. The Watergate Affair: On 9 August 1974, the 37th President of the United States, Richard Millhouse Nixon, resigned from office rather than face a certain trial in the U.S. Senate on three charges of impeachment against him which the House of Representatives would soon vote upon. The three impeachment resolutions had been approved by the House Judiciary Committee between July 27 and July 31, 1974. In these resolutions Richard Nixon had been accused of high crimes and misdemeanors, including: Obstruction of Justice: Nixon was accused of "using the powers of his high office" to engage "personally and through his subordinates and agents, in a course of conduct or plan designed to delay, impede, and obstruct the investigation of" a burglary at the Democratic National Headquarters, and "to cover up, conceal and protect those responsible; and to conceal the existence and scope of other unlawful covert activities." Abuse of power and violations of constitutional rights of citizens. Nixon was accused of a variety of abuses of power: 1. endeavoring to obtain from the IRS confidential information contained in income tax returns for purposes not authorized by law; seeking to initiate income tax audits and investigations against his enemies. 2. engaged in electronic surveillance using the FBI, Secret Service, and other executive personnel for purposes unrelated to national security or any other lawful function of his office. 3. created and used a secret investigative unit financed by campaign funding, utilizing CIA resources to engage in covert and unlawful activities. Violations of constitutional separation of powers on the issue of impeachment. 1. Nixon was accused of failure to cooperate with the House Judiciary Committee in its lawful investigation of misconduct by the Nixon administration. The Committee had subpoenaed papers and other information from the administration on four occasions in 1974. Nixon was accused of failing without lawful cause or excuse to produce those papers and information. 2. By not responding, Nixon was accused of "substituting his judgment as to what materials were necessary for the inquiry, interposed the powers of the Presidency against the lawful subpoenas of the House of Representatives, thereby assuming to himself functions and judgments necessary to the exercise of the sole power of impeachment." Two other impeachment resolutions had been considered by the Committee, but rejected. Nevertheless, the prospect of certain conviction in the Senate led Nixon to quit rather than fight on.

6. Historiography on the Watergate Scandal Points of view on the Watergate Scandal Liberal interpretation Democracy versus Despotism Lesson: No Man is Above the Law Conservative interpretation National Security State versus D�tente Lesson: Nixon was destroyed by the Establishment Interpretations of the Watergate Affair. How have historians and journalists interpreted the meaning of the Watergate affair. What were the issues involved? What is the evidence these scholars point to? What conclusions can we draw from an examination of their points of view and evidence? Liberal interpretation: Democracy versus Despotism. This is the point of view taken by two reporters working for the Washington Post who investigated the Watergate break -in and subsequent cover-up. See Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, All The President's Men (1974), and Theodore White, Breach of Faith: The Fall of Richard Nixon (1975). 1. Watergate was a despotic attack on the Democratic system by President Richard Nixon. These actions were the basis for the articles of impeachment voted by the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives in early August 1974. 2. Nixon violated the rules of democratic politics. All parties must respect the legitimacy of the opposition. This was the principle established by the election of Jefferson in 1800. Winners do not retaliate. Office holders do not use the power of office to persecute their opponents. Above all, the president must execute the laws, not violate them. No man, not even the president is above the law. 3. Nixon and his staff, however, do violate laws and attack opponents. Nixon saw himself as above the law. He used his power to abuse his opponents. He was viewed as acting without restraint. Nixon's Committee to Reelect the President played for keeps, played dirty. National Security bureaucracy versus a dovish Executive. This is the point of view of Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, Silent Coup: The Removal of a President (1991). 1. In this view Nixon was forced from office because he was the architect of a peace which angered the national security establishment. Nixon's commitment to withdrawal from Vietnam, detente with the Soviet Union, including significant agreements to curtail the nuclear arms race, and the opening of relations with communist China, represented drastic policy changes to the cold war orthodoxy. 2. Because Nixon initiated these policies without consultation with the elements of the national security establishment, he and Henry Kissinger became the subject of a "military spy network" involving moles highly placed in the National Security Council, including Alexander Haig, and the leadership of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. 3. Colodny and Gettlin dismiss Nixon's role in the illegal activity leading up to the Watergate break -in. The break-in and other dirty tricks were the result of John Dean's effort to dominate the political intelligence role in the White House and to exploit his future wife's association with a call -girl operation that serviced clients in the Democratic National Committee. Dean ultimately implicated the president in a cover -up in order to save himself. 4. Once Nixon had become involved in the cover -up, Alexander Haig and Buzhardt used Bob Woodward (whom the author's assert had a long association with Haig) topoint the finger at Nixon rather than Dean. 5. Why was Nixon forced from office? With Nixon first politically weakened by Watergate and then forced out of office, the Department of Defense renewed its arms race without restraint. Interpretations of the Watergate Affair. How have historians and journalists interpreted the meaning of the Watergate affair. What were the issues involved? What is the evidence these scholars point to? What conclusions can we draw from an examination of their points of view and evidence? Liberal interpretation: Democracy versus Despotism. This is the point of view taken by two reporters working for the Washington Post who investigated the Watergate break -in and subsequent cover-up. See Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, All The President's Men (1974), and Theodore White, Breach of Faith: The Fall of Richard Nixon (1975). 1. Watergate was a despotic attack on the Democratic system by President Richard Nixon. These actions were the basis for the articles of impeachment voted by the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives in early August 1974. 2. Nixon violated the rules of democratic politics. All parties must respect the legitimacy of the opposition. This was the principle established by the election of Jefferson in 1800. Winners do not retaliate. Office holders do not use the power of office to persecute their opponents. Above all, the president must execute the laws, not violate them. No man, not even the president is above the law. 3. Nixon and his staff, however, do violate laws and attack opponents. Nixon saw himself as above the law. He used his power to abuse his opponents. He was viewed as acting without restraint. Nixon's Committee to Reelect the President played for keeps, played dirty. National Security bureaucracy versus a dovish Executive. This is the point of view of Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, Silent Coup: The Removal of a President (1991). 1. In this view Nixon was forced from office because he was the architect of a peace which angered the national security establishment. Nixon's commitment to withdrawal from Vietnam, detente with the Soviet Union, including significant agreements to curtail the nuclear arms race, and the opening of relations with communist China, represented drastic policy changes to the cold war orthodoxy. 2. Because Nixon initiated these policies without consultation with the elements of the national security establishment, he and Henry Kissinger became the subject of a "military spy network" involving moles highly placed in the National Security Council, including Alexander Haig, and the leadership of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. 3. Colodny and Gettlin dismiss Nixon's role in the illegal activity leading up to the Watergate break -in. The break-in and other dirty tricks were the result of John Dean's effort to dominate the political intelligence role in the White House and to exploit his future wife's association with a call -girl operation that serviced clients in the Democratic National Committee. Dean ultimately implicated the president in a cover -up in order to save himself. 4. Once Nixon had become involved in the cover -up, Alexander Haig and Buzhardt used Bob Woodward (whom the author's assert had a long association with Haig) topoint the finger at Nixon rather than Dean. 5. Why was Nixon forced from office? With Nixon first politically weakened by Watergate and then forced out of office, the Department of Defense renewed its arms race without restraint.

7. CREEP, The Nixon Team Nixon surrounded himself with men and women, some of whom were with him for decades, others he added in the 1960s. Bob Halderman was recruited to Nixon�s inner circle in the late 1950s from advertising. He recruited Erlichman, who was a UCLA friend during the 1960 presidential run. Nixon had met Mitchell after he had moved to New York in 1963. Nixon made Mitchell his Attorney General. Maurice Stans had been a member of Eisenhower�s administration and thus a long term acquaintance of Nixon. Stans was tapped as the Secretary of Commerce. This team formed the nucleus of the Committee to Re-elect the President or CREEP. For the campaign, Haldeman controlled CREEP from the White House. Mitchell headed CREEP, Stans was the chief finance officer of CREEP. A number of additional White House bureaucrats played key roles in the re-election. When Erlichman was placed in charge of the Domestic Council, one of Mitchell�s young lawyers, John Dean, was made Legal Council to the President. But Dean was also head of political intelligence and he was the one who hired G. Gordon Liddy, one of the plumbers to now do dirty tricks for the campaign. Other dirty tricksters included Dwight Chapin and Donald Segretti, whose actions will be discussed later.Nixon surrounded himself with men and women, some of whom were with him for decades, others he added in the 1960s. Bob Halderman was recruited to Nixon�s inner circle in the late 1950s from advertising. He recruited Erlichman, who was a UCLA friend during the 1960 presidential run. Nixon had met Mitchell after he had moved to New York in 1963. Nixon made Mitchell his Attorney General. Maurice Stans had been a member of Eisenhower�s administration and thus a long term acquaintance of Nixon. Stans was tapped as the Secretary of Commerce. This team formed the nucleus of the Committee to Re-elect the President or CREEP. For the campaign, Haldeman controlled CREEP from the White House. Mitchell headed CREEP, Stans was the chief finance officer of CREEP. A number of additional White House bureaucrats played key roles in the re-election. When Erlichman was placed in charge of the Domestic Council, one of Mitchell�s young lawyers, John Dean, was made Legal Council to the President. But Dean was also head of political intelligence and he was the one who hired G. Gordon Liddy, one of the plumbers to now do dirty tricks for the campaign. Other dirty tricksters included Dwight Chapin and Donald Segretti, whose actions will be discussed later.

8. The Plumbers Nixon set up the plumbers to investigate leaks in his administration Secret Cambodian Bombing, 1969 Pentagon Papers, 1971 Watergate Break-in, 1972 Several leaks of classified information about foreign policy issues that appeared in the New York Times in April and May 1969, only a few months after taking office, led Nixon to approve wire taps on both government officials on the National Security Council and at the Pentagon, and on reporters. By September 1969, Nixon had ordered a total of 17 wire taps on 4 newsmen and 13 government officials. In and of themselves these wire taps were not illegal. The Government had routinely tapped the Communist Party, organized crime and racketeers, foreign embassies, and the civil rights movement leadership for years. But once started, the practice became illegal when wire taps begun on government officials continued after they left office or when taps were put on individuals with nothing to do with national security (David Halperin and John Sears). The initial plumbers targets had arisen from what Nixon saw as a unholy alliance between the bureaucracy and the media. Then in June 1971, the New York Times began publication of a secret Pentagon Study known as the Pentagon Papers. This study had been undertaken by Daniel Ellsberg and Tony Russo, two RAND researchers hired by the Pentagon to assembly a documentary record of how the U.S. became involved in the Vietnam debacle. Ellsberg and Russo had done so, producing a 14 volume Documentary set and a single volume history. But they had also become disillusioned by the war and wanted the public to know the truth. Nixon wanted the leakers discredited. In September 1971, the plumbers broke into the offices of a psychologist Ellsberg was seeing. They didn�t find much, but the plumbers were kept around for the re-election campaign.Several leaks of classified information about foreign policy issues that appeared in the New York Times in April and May 1969, only a few months after taking office, led Nixon to approve wire taps on both government officials on the National Security Council and at the Pentagon, and on reporters. By September 1969, Nixon had ordered a total of 17 wire taps on 4 newsmen and 13 government officials. In and of themselves these wire taps were not illegal. The Government had routinely tapped the Communist Party, organized crime and racketeers, foreign embassies, and the civil rights movement leadership for years. But once started, the practice became illegal when wire taps begun on government officials continued after they left office or when taps were put on individuals with nothing to do with national security (David Halperin and John Sears). The initial plumbers targets had arisen from what Nixon saw as a unholy alliance between the bureaucracy and the media. Then in June 1971, the New York Times began publication of a secret Pentagon Study known as the Pentagon Papers. This study had been undertaken by Daniel Ellsberg and Tony Russo, two RAND researchers hired by the Pentagon to assembly a documentary record of how the U.S. became involved in the Vietnam debacle. Ellsberg and Russo had done so, producing a 14 volume Documentary set and a single volume history. But they had also become disillusioned by the war and wanted the public to know the truth. Nixon wanted the leakers discredited. In September 1971, the plumbers broke into the offices of a psychologist Ellsberg was seeing. They didn�t find much, but the plumbers were kept around for the re-election campaign.

9. Republican Dirty Tricks Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP) Donald Segretti manages �ratfucking� campaign during Democratic Primaries Object: to influence candidate Nixon would face in November Extortion and Shakedowns The Committee to Re-Elect the President wanted to neutralize the strongest Democratic candidates, Edward Kennedy, and Edward Muskie. Toward this end they developed a series of �dirty tricks,� or in the colorful language of Donald Segretti, the individual hired by CREEP to discredit these men. Segretti did things such as give Kennedy a driving award. He attacked Muskie�s wife and accused Muskie of racism. Muskie was so outraged that he appeared before the Newspaper that published these stories and started crying. That ended his campaign. In the end, the antiwar candidate, George McGovern won the primary and captured the Democratic Party nomination. There was also the story of George Wallace, Democratic Governor of Alabama. Wallace threaten Nixon�s southern strategy because he was sure to win a sizable number of southern white voters. He had also run very strong in Michigan, a northern state. He was shot during the campaign. There is no evidence Nixon�s campaign was behind that event. CREEP also exhorted money from industry groups for his campaign. Nixon ordered his Environmental Protection Agency head, The Committee to Re-Elect the President wanted to neutralize the strongest Democratic candidates, Edward Kennedy, and Edward Muskie. Toward this end they developed a series of �dirty tricks,� or in the colorful language of Donald Segretti, the individual hired by CREEP to discredit these men. Segretti did things such as give Kennedy a driving award. He attacked Muskie�s wife and accused Muskie of racism. Muskie was so outraged that he appeared before the Newspaper that published these stories and started crying. That ended his campaign. In the end, the antiwar candidate, George McGovern won the primary and captured the Democratic Party nomination. There was also the story of George Wallace, Democratic Governor of Alabama. Wallace threaten Nixon�s southern strategy because he was sure to win a sizable number of southern white voters. He had also run very strong in Michigan, a northern state. He was shot during the campaign. There is no evidence Nixon�s campaign was behind that event. CREEP also exhorted money from industry groups for his campaign. Nixon ordered his Environmental Protection Agency head,

10. Watergate Break-In On June 1, 1972, during the National Democratic Convention, a team of five burglars placed listening devices in the offices of the Democratic National Headquarters The team was discovered and arrested Who were they and why were they placing bugs? The Watergate Hotel burglars consisted of five men, two Cuban Americans and three Anglo-Americans. They were Bernard L. Barker , Virgilio R. Gonzales, James W. McCord, Eugenio R. Martinez, and Frank A. Sturgis. One of those arrested had in his possession a phone number to a member of the Committee to Re-Elect the President. This linked the burglars to some of the President�s men and launched the investigation that eventually tied the burglary to the White House. Considerable speculation surrounds the question of why Nixon would have wanted the Democratic National Headquarters bugged? The tapes themselves would later reveal Nixon feared Democratic National Chairman Larry O�Brien had information on illegal campaign donations the Nixon Election Committee had received about the 1968 election.The Watergate Hotel burglars consisted of five men, two Cuban Americans and three Anglo-Americans. They were Bernard L. Barker , Virgilio R. Gonzales, James W. McCord, Eugenio R. Martinez, and Frank A. Sturgis. One of those arrested had in his possession a phone number to a member of the Committee to Re-Elect the President. This linked the burglars to some of the President�s men and launched the investigation that eventually tied the burglary to the White House. Considerable speculation surrounds the question of why Nixon would have wanted the Democratic National Headquarters bugged? The tapes themselves would later reveal Nixon feared Democratic National Chairman Larry O�Brien had information on illegal campaign donations the Nixon Election Committee had received about the 1968 election.

11. Journalists Investigate Two Beat reporters for the Washington Post metro section Aided by a Whistle-blower Woodward called �Deep throat� 1976 published �All the President�s Men� The Watergate Burglary in June 1972 had been dismissed as a third-rate burglary by the White House and Committee to Re-Elect the President, which denied any involvement with the affair. The FBI began an investigation. Two young reporters, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein. on the Washington Metro Beat choice to follow the story when a White House phone number was found in the possession of two of the burglars, both former members of the CIA. This produced a resignation by Mitchell as head of CREEP two weeks later. Before he resigned Mitchell fired G. Gordon Liddy of the CREEP staff for refusing to answer FBI questions about Watergate. Liddy was the finance council for CREEP. Liddy had paid money to the burglars to keep quiet. The reporters initially targeted CREEP support staff, secretaries and a bookkeeper. The bookkeeper revealed the existence of a secret fund used to finance dirty tricks and payoffs. It was at this point that �Deep Throat� stepped into the picture. In their book, All the President�s Men, Woodward maintained that Deep Throat was a composite of government officials with knowledge of the official investigation of the FBI. Whoever he was, Deep Throat confirmed the secret fund, dirty tricks, and other activities. This enable Woodward and Bernstein to build a case for manipulation of the electoral process. By early 1973, despite Nixon�s overwhelming re-election, political momentum had built for a Congressional investigation.The Watergate Burglary in June 1972 had been dismissed as a third-rate burglary by the White House and Committee to Re-Elect the President, which denied any involvement with the affair. The FBI began an investigation. Two young reporters, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein. on the Washington Metro Beat choice to follow the story when a White House phone number was found in the possession of two of the burglars, both former members of the CIA. This produced a resignation by Mitchell as head of CREEP two weeks later. Before he resigned Mitchell fired G. Gordon Liddy of the CREEP staff for refusing to answer FBI questions about Watergate. Liddy was the finance council for CREEP. Liddy had paid money to the burglars to keep quiet. The reporters initially targeted CREEP support staff, secretaries and a bookkeeper. The bookkeeper revealed the existence of a secret fund used to finance dirty tricks and payoffs. It was at this point that �Deep Throat� stepped into the picture. In their book, All the President�s Men, Woodward maintained that Deep Throat was a composite of government officials with knowledge of the official investigation of the FBI. Whoever he was, Deep Throat confirmed the secret fund, dirty tricks, and other activities. This enable Woodward and Bernstein to build a case for manipulation of the electoral process. By early 1973, despite Nixon�s overwhelming re-election, political momentum had built for a Congressional investigation.

12. Plumbers Go To Court Role of Judge John J. Sirica The bribery of the Plumbers to not talk The Trial of the Watergate Burglars Grand Jury indictments The Watergate burglars were brought before Judge John Sirica, the chief Judge for the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. The burglars are pictured in the Upper picture are left to right, Bernard L. Barker , Virgilio R. Gonzales, James W. McCord, Eugenio R. Martinez, and Frank A. Sturgis. Since they had been caught red-handed, there wasn�t much of a defense to be mounted. But they refused to talk as a result of bribes they had been paid. They claimed that they had acted alone. Sirica found this ridiculous and as a consequence, Sirica leveled stiff sentences on them as a way of getting them to talk. It worked. By early 1973, James McCord agreed to talk to Senate investigators and named two members of the White House staff, John Dean and Jeb Stuart Magruder. Meanwhile, the FBI investigation generated seven indictments, the men in the drawing. In the lower picture, Judge John Sirica in the foreground with the seven men charged with involvement in the Watergate affair from the White House and Committee to Re-elect the President. From left: John Ehrlichman, former presidential aide; H.R. Halderman, former White House chief of staff; Gordon Strachan, former aide to Halderman; Kenneth Parkinson, a lawyer retained by the committee to re-elect Nixon; Charles Colson; former U.S. attorney general John Mitchell; and Robert Marcian, the former head of internal security at the US justice department.The Watergate burglars were brought before Judge John Sirica, the chief Judge for the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. The burglars are pictured in the Upper picture are left to right, Bernard L. Barker , Virgilio R. Gonzales, James W. McCord, Eugenio R. Martinez, and Frank A. Sturgis. Since they had been caught red-handed, there wasn�t much of a defense to be mounted. But they refused to talk as a result of bribes they had been paid. They claimed that they had acted alone. Sirica found this ridiculous and as a consequence, Sirica leveled stiff sentences on them as a way of getting them to talk. It worked. By early 1973, James McCord agreed to talk to Senate investigators and named two members of the White House staff, John Dean and Jeb Stuart Magruder. Meanwhile, the FBI investigation generated seven indictments, the men in the drawing. In the lower picture, Judge John Sirica in the foreground with the seven men charged with involvement in the Watergate affair from the White House and Committee to Re-elect the President. From left: John Ehrlichman, former presidential aide; H.R. Halderman, former White House chief of staff; Gordon Strachan, former aide to Halderman; Kenneth Parkinson, a lawyer retained by the committee to re-elect Nixon; Charles Colson; former U.S. attorney general John Mitchell; and Robert Marcian, the former head of internal security at the US justice department.

13. Congress Investigates Mike Mansfield, Senate Majority Leader pledge to investigate Senate creates a special Senate Select Committee on Campaign Practices Hearings begin May 17, 1973, dominated news May-July 1973 The Democratic Party Majority Leader, Mike Mansfield was outraged by the reports of dirty tricks and vowed to investigate. But he couldn�t turn to the Senate Judiciary Committee because its head, Senator Eastland was personally loyal to Nixon. Mansfield maintained that the Watergate affair poised a grave threat to the election process. Writing to Sam Ervin he said, �At stake is the continued vitality of the electoral process in the governmental structure of the nation.� Mansfield proposed a resolution to set up a special Senate Select Committee on Campaign Practices. It passed the Senate 77-0 on February 1973. Ervin was selected to lead the effort. The Ervin Committee brought in Sam Dash, an expert on civil liberties and wire tapping as the staff director. Soon the committee grew to 97 staff members, including a young lawyer named Hilary Clinton. Ervin and Dash planned to build a case from the bottom up by getting those at the bottom of CREEP to talk. The idea being to get them to incriminate the next level up. The hearings became a major media event, broadcast nationally. Between the months of May and July 1973, one revelation followed another. First the authorization of break-ins by CREEP, then the cover-up, then the revelations about Nixon�s tapping system, then John Erlichman�s claims that the President had the power to break the law! Each revelation further undermining Nixon�s popularity and producing resignations from his inner circle. The Democratic Party Majority Leader, Mike Mansfield was outraged by the reports of dirty tricks and vowed to investigate. But he couldn�t turn to the Senate Judiciary Committee because its head, Senator Eastland was personally loyal to Nixon. Mansfield maintained that the Watergate affair poised a grave threat to the election process. Writing to Sam Ervin he said, �At stake is the continued vitality of the electoral process in the governmental structure of the nation.� Mansfield proposed a resolution to set up a special Senate Select Committee on Campaign Practices. It passed the Senate 77-0 on February 1973. Ervin was selected to lead the effort. The Ervin Committee brought in Sam Dash, an expert on civil liberties and wire tapping as the staff director. Soon the committee grew to 97 staff members, including a young lawyer named Hilary Clinton. Ervin and Dash planned to build a case from the bottom up by getting those at the bottom of CREEP to talk. The idea being to get them to incriminate the next level up. The hearings became a major media event, broadcast nationally. Between the months of May and July 1973, one revelation followed another. First the authorization of break-ins by CREEP, then the cover-up, then the revelations about Nixon�s tapping system, then John Erlichman�s claims that the President had the power to break the law! Each revelation further undermining Nixon�s popularity and producing resignations from his inner circle.

14. The Nixon Tapes Alexander Butterfield revealed Nixon Tapes to Senate Judiciary Committee What did the Tapes reveal? Burglary Bugging Extortion Pattern of lying Cover-up Alexander Butterfield was another friend of Bob Haldeman, who had brought him to the White House as a Presidential Assistant in 1969. It was Butterfield who revealed the existence of a tapping system at the White House to the Senate Watergate Committee. Butterfield testified Nixon initially had not wanted a taping system in the White House. Nixon was aware both John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson had taped their conversations and then planned to put them in their presidential libraries. But he ordered the removal of the tapping system in February 1969. Then Nixon changed his mind and had a new system installed in February 1971 for historical purposes. The revelation of the existence of a taping system proved to be a political bombshell because it became possible to answer the question: what did Nixon know and when did Nixon know it? The revelations launched a year long battle to get the tapes released. At first Nixon refused to release anything. Later he agreed to release heavily redacted transcripts of his tapes. Then he agreed to release selected tapes, including one with an 18 minute gap. Only when he finally released tapes dealing with the cover-up was his presidency destroyed.Alexander Butterfield was another friend of Bob Haldeman, who had brought him to the White House as a Presidential Assistant in 1969. It was Butterfield who revealed the existence of a tapping system at the White House to the Senate Watergate Committee. Butterfield testified Nixon initially had not wanted a taping system in the White House. Nixon was aware both John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson had taped their conversations and then planned to put them in their presidential libraries. But he ordered the removal of the tapping system in February 1969. Then Nixon changed his mind and had a new system installed in February 1971 for historical purposes. The revelation of the existence of a taping system proved to be a political bombshell because it became possible to answer the question: what did Nixon know and when did Nixon know it? The revelations launched a year long battle to get the tapes released. At first Nixon refused to release anything. Later he agreed to release heavily redacted transcripts of his tapes. Then he agreed to release selected tapes, including one with an 18 minute gap. Only when he finally released tapes dealing with the cover-up was his presidency destroyed.

15. Nixon Resigns Nixon gave a heartfelt speech on the day he boarded this helicopter to begin his journal back to California where he would live at the so-called �White House West� in San Clemente. Thirty days later he was pardoned by President-select Jerry Ford.Nixon gave a heartfelt speech on the day he boarded this helicopter to begin his journal back to California where he would live at the so-called �White House West� in San Clemente. Thirty days later he was pardoned by President-select Jerry Ford.

16. Critical Thinking Question Did the system work to bring a rouge President to heal? Yes The Congress, the Judicial system, and the media demonstrated the power of the rule of law to check abusive power The reforms enacted to restrain power restore separation of powers and sunshine to government conduct No The investigation and punishment of wrong-doing was limited and ineffectual The reforms enacted to restrain power were ineffectual The long term consequences of what was revealed by the Watergate Scandal set the stage for lasting cynicism toward Americans leaders

17. Final Mystery: Who Was Deep Throat? Deep throat, the most famous whistle-blower in US history Source of insider information on Watergate affair for two Washington Post reporters Best kept secret in Washington history Bob Woodward kept Felt�s identity a secret for thirty three years. W. Mark Felt was a former No. 2 man at the FBI during the Watergate investigation. Felt himself came forward to reveal his identity just prior to his death in 2005 in an article in Vanity Fair. Felt died December 18, 2008, at the age of 95. Why did Felt talk to Woodward? Woodward�s �request came during a crucial moment in the FBI's history: Felt's mentor, the legendary founding director J. Edgar Hoover, had died the month before the break-in, and Assistant Atty. Gen. L. Patrick Gray III had been named acting director. Felt feared -- and his suspicions were later proven right -- that Gray was too close to the Nixon administration to conduct an uncompromised investigation.� This according to the LA Times obituary, December 19, 2008.Bob Woodward kept Felt�s identity a secret for thirty three years. W. Mark Felt was a former No. 2 man at the FBI during the Watergate investigation. Felt himself came forward to reveal his identity just prior to his death in 2005 in an article in Vanity Fair. Felt died December 18, 2008, at the age of 95. Why did Felt talk to Woodward? Woodward�s �request came during a crucial moment in the FBI's history: Felt's mentor, the legendary founding director J. Edgar Hoover, had died the month before the break-in, and Assistant Atty. Gen. L. Patrick Gray III had been named acting director. Felt feared -- and his suspicions were later proven right -- that Gray was too close to the Nixon administration to conduct an uncompromised investigation.� This according to the LA Times obituary, December 19, 2008.

18. Conclusions The Watergate Scandal helps explain Nixon�s success in the 1972 election Nixon�s resignation demonstrated the vitality of the Congress, the judiciary, and the media as checks on unrestrained power The long term consequences of the scandal were muted by ineffectual reforms, the loss of media independence, and a growing cynicism about politics and leadership The latter point is particularly important. After Watergate, the way the public and the press viewed politicians changed. Watergate influenced the way candidates raise money by putting limits on individual donations. It also influenced the way Congress conducts its business and the level of disclosure about private lives that is demanded of public officials. Finally, it institutionalized the use of scandal as a weapon in the ongoing ideological and partisan wars over policy. After Nixon�s resignation, the pursuit and promotion of scandal has become a routine tool political parties use to weaken their opponents and derail their policy agenda. Jimmy Carter�s Peanutgate, Ronald Reagan�s Irangate, and Bill Clinton�s Whitewatergate and Blowjobgate stand out in particular. As a result, Americans have grown increasingly cynical about politics and leadership, a trend that may have reached its nadir with the Presidency of George W. Bush.The latter point is particularly important. After Watergate, the way the public and the press viewed politicians changed. Watergate influenced the way candidates raise money by putting limits on individual donations. It also influenced the way Congress conducts its business and the level of disclosure about private lives that is demanded of public officials. Finally, it institutionalized the use of scandal as a weapon in the ongoing ideological and partisan wars over policy. After Nixon�s resignation, the pursuit and promotion of scandal has become a routine tool political parties use to weaken their opponents and derail their policy agenda. Jimmy Carter�s Peanutgate, Ronald Reagan�s Irangate, and Bill Clinton�s Whitewatergate and Blowjobgate stand out in particular. As a result, Americans have grown increasingly cynical about politics and leadership, a trend that may have reached its nadir with the Presidency of George W. Bush.