Learning Theory

1. Learning Theory Learning Theory Francis O’Neill INST 5131 Assignment 2 6/19/09

2. Learning : the persistent change in human performance or performance potential. Driscoll(2005)

3. Theories • Behavioral Learning • B.F. Skinner • Cognitive Information Processing • Schema and Cognitive Load • Situated Learning

4. Behavioral Learning Behaviorism “the relatively permanent change in behavior brought about as a result of experience or practice.” W. Huitt & J. Hummel (1999)

5. Behavioral Learning • Empirical basis • Behavior is observed both before and after instruction; if no change in behavior is observed then the instruction had no impact. • Objectives • Allow desired behaviors to be focus of instructional efforts and practice with the intent of obtaining a predetermined outcome • Feedback • Is equivalent to reinforcement and is a necessary component

6. Behavioral Learning In my adaptive behavior classroom that means Lots of observations formal and informal Behavior charts frequent feedback positive reinforcement modeling of proper behavior praise for good choices

7. Cognitive Information Processing • Internal process responsible for learning • Multistage, multistore theory of memory • Sensory memory • Short term memory • Long term memory

8. Cognitive Information Processing Large Small Large Literal copy of physical stimulus Duel Code -Visual -Verbal - Episodic/ Semantic 0.5 seconds 20-30 seconds Permanent Environment Environment/ prior knowledge Effective encodings from STS Decay Displacement / Decay Irretrievability Driscoll p 77

9. Schemaand Cognitive Load • Schema • Knowledge is represented by pieces of information called schemata • Cognitive Load • Amount of information manipulated in short term memory.

10. Schemaand Cognitive Load My schema for a school

11. Schemaand Cognitive Load In cognitive load theory mind filters extraneous information.

12. Situated Learning Learning is the sum of our cultural/social experiences.

13. Learning Environments • Behavioral Learning • Cognitive Information Processing • Schema and Cognitive Load • Situated Learning

14. Epistemological Perspectives, Design Frameworks and Design Practices Positivism Knowledge exists independant of learner There is absolute truth Relativism Knowledge is constructed by the learner Truth is contextual Objectivism Knowledge is transferred from outside the learner Arrange conditions to promote specific goal Knowledge is engineered Constructivism Guide learner in constructing knowledge Provide a rich context for negotiating and meaning construction Knowledge constructed internally Instructional Design Classroom Directed Teacher directing/ learner receiving Goal predetermined Objectives defined Activities, material, assessment are teacher driven Products given to teacher for assessment Constructional Design Environment Learner centered Teacher facilitating – learner controlling Learning goal negotiable Learning problems and context are authentic Activities, material, assessment are context driven and individually constructed Artifacts shared and reflected on collectively and individually Adapted from Hafton & Hill 54

15. Learning Environments Practice improves skills • Behavioral (Objectivist) Reinforced positive behaviors Feedback can extinguish negative behaviors Learning theory website

16. Learning Environments In the classroom that means • Teacher actively engaged with class • Students focused on the “giver” of instruction • Many opportunities for reinforcement • practice • Frequent feedback Kennesaw (2007)

17. (Dorman, 2001) (Marra, 2005) (Dorman, 2001) (Marra, 2005) (Dorman, 2001) (Marra, 2005) Learning Environments Teacher facilitating • Constructivist Sharing / reflective, technology based Learners free to experiment Problems are real world. Assessment are individual (Dorman, 2001) (Marra, 2005)

18. Learning Environments In the classroom that means • Teacher acts as facilitator • Students focused on the activities • Many opportunities for exploration • Hands on • Boundaries less rigid • Activities focus on “real world” Kennesaw (2007)

19. Learning Environments Cognitive model Adapted from (Grow, 1996)

20. Learning Environments Listening Cognitive model reading watching Adapted from (Grow, 1996)

21. Learning Environments In the classroom that means • the individual learns by listening • watching • touching • Reading • experiencing and then processing and remembering the information. (ThinkQuest)

22. Learning Environments A time for drills In my Special Education classroom that means A time for whole group A time for Small groups 2-3 But, also a time to explore

23. Learner Motivation Maslow’s hierarchy 5 stage model (Wikipedia, 2009)

24. Learner Motivation Maslow’s hierarchy 8 stage model Adapted 1990’s Adapted from businessballs.com (2009)

25. Learner Motivation Maslow’s hierarchy key • Biological and physiological – air, food, shelter, drink, warmth, sex, sleep. ect • Safety needs – protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, ect. • Belongingness & Love needs – work group, family, affection, relationships, ect. • Esteem need – self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, managerial responsibility • *Cognitive needs – knowledge, meaning, ect • *Aesthetic needs appreciation and search for beauty • Self-Actualization needs – self fulfillment, personal growth • *Transcendence needs – helping others to achieve self actualization businessballs.com (2009) * Added in 1990’s

26. Learner Motivation Maslow’s hierarchy key In the classroom this means Teacher become protector and provider ensuring that basic needs are met. A hungry, scared child can not learn academics.

27. Learner Motivation Attribution Theory : • Attribution theory is concerned with how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behavior. • Assumed: people will interpret their environment in such a way as to maintain a positive self-image. Why did he do that? (Tip.Psycology.org/weiner.html) (2009)

28. Learner Motivation Attribution Theory : (Tip.Psycology.org/weiner.html) (2009)

29. Learner Motivation Attribution Theory : • Achievement can be attributed (edpsy5_attribution.htm, unknown date)

30. Learner Motivation Attribution Theory : • Causal dimensions of behavior adapted from (edpsy5_attribution.htm, unknown date)

31. Learner Motivation Attribution Theory : • In the classroom that means • If we want students to persist at academic tasks, we should help them establish a sincere belief that they are competent • It is not beneficial for students to attribute their successes entirely to ability. • When students fail, they are most likely to persist and eventually succeed if they attribute their failure to a lack of appropriate effort. • It is extremely hazardous to motivational health for students to fail repeatedly after making a serious effort at academic tasks • It is important to define effort correctly and for the learners to internalize an accurate concept of effort. • Another way to say this is that it is possible and desirable for students to believe that even though they have "worked hard," they have not yet put forth their best effort. I • Excessively competitive grading and evaluation systems are likely to impair the learning of many students. • It is useful to evaluate students at least partly (but not exclusively) on the basis of their effort. . • In general, it is best for students to believe that it is their own behavior rather than external circumstances that leads to success or failure. • When students have a conviction that they lack ability, it is necessary to take steps to circumvent or overcome this conviction. • Find areas in which the learner perceives himself or herself as successful, and show connections between that area and the topic currently under consideration. • While the teacher's long-range goal may be to enhance the child's self-concept, • When students reject the value of effort, it is important to change their perception. (edpsy5_attribution.htm, unknown date)

32. Learner Motivation ARCS Theory : adapted from (Small, 1997)

33. Learner Motivation ARCS Theory : In the classroom that means Satisfaction Natural Consequences Provide opportunities to use newly acquired knowledge or skill in a real or simulated setting Positive ConsequencesProvide feedback and reinforcements that will sustain the desired behavior EquityMaintain consistent standards and consequences for task accomplishment Attention Perceptual ArousalGain and maintain student attention by the use of novel, surprising, incongruous, or uncertain events in instruction. Inquiry ArousalStimulate information-seeking behavior by posing, or having the learner generate, questions or a problem to solve. VariabilityMaintain student interest by varying the elements of instruction Confidence Expectancy for Success Make learners aware of performance requirements and evaluative criteria. Challenge SettingProvide multiple achievement levels that allow learners to set personal goals or standards of accomplishment, and performance opportunities that allow them to experience success. Attribution MoldingProvide feedback that supports student ability and effort as the determinants of success. Relevance FamiliarityAdapt instruction, use concrete language, use examples and concepts that are related to the learner's experience and values to help them integrate new knowledge. Goal OrientationProvide statements or examples that present the objectives and utility of the instruction, and either present goals for accomplishment or have the learner define them. Motive MatchingAdapt by using teaching strategies that match the motive profiles of the students. adapted from (ARCS- Motivation Theory, unknown date)

34. Learner Motivation Self-regulating : four self-regulation strategies--motivation/diligence, concentration, information processing, and self-handicapping • Self-regulation is a cyclical process of cognitive engagement in which purposive behavior is planned, adapted and evaluated (Maclellan, 2005)

35. Learner Motivation Self-regulating : adapted from(Warren, 1968)

36. Learner Motivation Self-regulating Diligence constant and earnest effort to accomplish what is undertaken; persistent exertion of body or mind. (dictionary.reference.com/browse/diligence, 2009)

37. Learner Motivation Self-regulating Self-handicapping is defined as "any action or choice of performance setting that enhances the opportunities to externalize failure and to internalize success." (Wikipedia, 2009)

38. Learner Motivation Self-regulating Information processing Taking sensory input manipulating it in short term memory and storing it in long term memory as schemata Driscoll(2005)

39. Learner Motivation Self-regulating Concentration Ability to focus on a task

40. References • Abbamondi, D. (2004). Tech Trainer. Retrieved June 18, 2009, from ettc.net: http://www.ettc.net/tech/adultlearning/schema.htm • ARCS.htm. (unknown date). Retrieved June 19, 2009, from psu.edu: http://ide.ed.psu.edu/idde/ARCS.htm • businessball.com. (2009, June 18). /maslow. Retrieved June 18, 2009, from businessballs.com: http://www.businessballs.com/maslow.htm • Dorman, J. P. (2001). Associations between Classroom Environment and Academic Efficacy. Learning Environment Research , 4 (2), 243-257. • Driscoll, M. P. (2007). Psychological Foundations of Instructional Design. In R. A. Reiser, Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology (pp. 36-44). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall. • Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. Boston: Pearson Education Inc. • edpsy5_attribution.htm. (unknown date). Retrieved June 18, 2009, from purdue.edu: http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdpsyBook/Edpsy5/edpsy5_attribution.htm • Grow, G. O. (1996). A Cognitive Model of Learning. Retrieved June 17th, 2009, from Longleaf.net: http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/StrategicReader/StratNotes.html#anchor1143902 • Hannafin, M. J. (2007). Epistemology and the Design of Learning Environments. In R. A. Reiser, Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (pp. 53-61). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

41. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/diligence. (2009). Retrieved June 19, 2009, from dictionary.com: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/diligence • Keller, J. M. (2007). Motivation and Performance. In R. A. Reiser, Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (pp. 82-92). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall. • Maclellan, E. &. (2005, October 21). Facilitating Self-Regulation in Higher Education through Self-Report. Learning Environments Research , pp. 95-111. • Marra, R. (2005). Teacher Beliefs: the impact of the design of Constructivist Learning Environments on Instructor Epistemologies. Learning Environments Research , 8, 135-155. • Pedersen, S. &. (2003). Teachers' Beliefs about Issues in the implementation of Student-Centered Learning Environment. Educational Technology Research and Development , 51 (2), 57-76. • Small, R. V. (1997, 00 00). Motivation in Instructional Design. Syracuse, New York, US. • ThinkQuest. (n.d.). Cognitive processes. Retrieved June 18, 2009, from Think Quest: http://library.thinkquest.org/26618/en-5.5.3=cognitive%20learning.htm • Tip.Psycology.org/weiner.html. (n.d.). Retrieved June 19, 2009, from Tip.Psychology.org: http://tip.psychology.org/weiner.html • Warren, E. T. (1968, 00 00). The Implications of A. H. Maslow's "Hierarchy of Needs". Ann Arbor, Michigan, US. • Wikipedia. (2009, March 6). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-handicapping. Retrieved June 18, 2009, from wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-handicapping • Wikipedia. (2009, June 18). Maslow's Hierarchy. Retrieved June 18, 2009, from Wikipedia.com: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs