The ‘widening and deepening’ of the European Union, 1951-2006

1. The ‘widening and deepening’ of the European Union, 1951-2006 Dr Maurice FitzGerald Lecturer in European and International Studies Department of Politics, International Relations and European Studies (PIRES) Loughborough University email m.fitzgerald@lboro.ac.uk tel 01509 223659 web http://www-staff.lboro.ac.uk/~eumf2/index.htm

2. aims of this presentation • to examine some of the fundamental processes involved in the history of European integration across the second half of the 20th century, especially in terms of the EU’s ‘widening and deepening’ • ‘widening’ essentially means increasing the EU’s membership through the process of enlargement, i.e. accepting the entry of new Member States • ‘deepening’ basically means developing and strengthening the EU’s competences and policies, e.g. through the signing of new treaties • to argue that this process is both dynamic and ongoing, and that the United Kingdom, with its European partners, has more to gain than to lose from a development which, despite some serious setbacks, looks set to continue across the 21st century

3. federalism neofunctionalism intergovernmentalism system governance network governance neo-institutionalism social constructivism integration through law discursive approaches gender perspectives some theoretical approaches Antje Wiener & Thomas Diez (eds.), European integration theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), p.240 liberal intergovernmentalism  Andrew Moravcsik, The choice for Europe: social purpose and state power from Messina to Maastricht (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998)

4. What do we mean by ‘Europe’? Who is included? Who is excluded? Timothy Garton Ash, “Montenegro is back on the map, and it need not become Ruritania”, Guardian, 1 June 2006, http://www.guardian.co.uk/Columnists/Column/0,,1787175,00.html [15 August 2006]

5. what is ‘Europeanization’? “the reorientation and reshaping of aspects of politics and governance in the domestic arena in ways that reflect the policies, practices and preferences of European level actors” for further information, see Ian Bache & Andrew Jordan (eds.), The Europeanization of British Politics (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2006)

6. does the EU have a government ... or is it a system of governance? Commission http://europa.eu.int/comm/ Council http://ue.eu.int Parliament http://www.europarl.eu.int/ Court http://curia.eu.int/

7. is the EU a state? year anthem constitution currency motto Gateway to the European Union http://europa.eu flag day

8. basic enlargement history 1951 ‘Six’ Belgium, France, West Germany (FRG), Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands 1973 ‘Nine’ Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom 1981 ‘Ten’ Greece 1986 ‘Twelve’ Portugal, and Spain 1990 East Germany (GDR) 1995 ‘Fifteen’ Austria, Finland, and Sweden 2004‘Twenty-five’ Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovenia, and the Slovak Republic … and Norway? } northern }southern Greenland withdraws! }forgotten … and Norway? }EFTAN CEEC{ (incl. Club Med)

9. treaty basis for enlargement Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe – Article I-58 • The Union shall be open to all European States which respect the values [of the European Union, namely “respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities. These values are common to the Member States in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between men and women prevail”] … and are committed to promoting them together. • Any European State which wishes to become a member of the Union shall address its application to the Council. The European Parliament and national parliaments shall be notified of this application. The Council shall act unanimously after consulting the Commission and after obtaining the consent of the European Parliament, which shall act by a majority of its component members. The conditions and arrangement for admission shall be the subject of an agreement between the Member States and the candidate State. That agreement shall be subject to ratification by each contracting State, in accordance with its respective constitutional requirements.

10. fundamental policy developments }Treaty of Paris }Treaties of Rome 1951 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 1957 European Economic Community (EEC) European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) 1965 merger treaty forms the European Communities (EC) 1968 completion of the Common Market 1986 Single European Act (SEA) 1993 Treaty of European Union (TEU, also known as Maastricht) 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam 2000Treaty of Nice 2004 Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (ratification pending) e.g. CAP … & CFP < } from Single Market (1992) to single currency (2002) ‘eurosclerosis’ QMV … more QMV … and even more QMV

11. a new constitution? constitutional treaty ratification Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain have all completed this process the French and Dutch electorates have, through consultative referenda, rejected it the UK – originally slated to be the last EU25 state to hold a referendum – has put it on hold, as have the Czech Republic, Denmark, Ireland, Poland, Portugal, and Sweden; meanwhile, Finland appears to be continuing with ratification and may complete it by the end of 2006 as acceding counties, Bulgaria and Romania – as well as Croatia, FYROM and Turkey as candidate countries – are expected to assume the constitution as part of their membership Countries which assume it upon entry

12. acceding countries Bulgaria applied in December 1995 Romania applied in June 1995 candidate countries Turkey applied in April 1987 Croatia applied in February 2003 FYROM applied in March 2004 the next waves of enlargement? • potential candidate countries • Albania • Bosnia and Herzegovina • Montenegro • Serbia • United Nations Mission in Kosovo

13. the future development of the eurozone? twelve EU member states are part of the eurozone three other European countries formally use the euro, while a further three countries use it without a formal arrangement thirteen EU member states are not in the eurozone eight of them are ERMII members, and thus are linked to the euro, but only two of them have formal euro opt-outs what of the Growth and Stability Pact?

14. Commission Iraq | Growth and Jobs | Sustainable Development | Middle East | Development | EU Budget | Avian influenza | Enlargement | CAP/Doha | Humanitarian aid | Climate change | Fight against terrorism | Energy what are the EU’s current concerns? Finnish presidency “The Presidency of the Council of the European Union rotates every six months … Finland … passes it on to Germany at the beginning of 2007. Portugal will hold the Presidency during the latter half of 2007 and Slovenia will take over the position in 2008. Finland held its previous EU Presidency during the latter half of 1999 … Finland will next hold the Presidency of the EU in spring 2020.

15. other reasons for concern? • Treaty of Nice implementation: having entered into force in 2003, its full realisation is now well under way, but it will not be completed until the end of the decade • EU25: with the composition and structures of the European Council, Council of Ministers, Commission, Parliament, and the Courts, as well as changes in working practices, the CEEC enlargement is forcing the EU to reinvent and reform itself or else it will become unworkable; meanwhile, the CEECs have been tasked with addressing a whole host of problems – politically, economically, judicially, and socially • CAP: following the agreement on the budgetary perspective for 2007-2013, plans for the reform of CAP will doubtlessly re-emerge before the end of the decade, not least within the realm of WTO negotiations, but also in terms of viability, future contributions, etc. • internal market: the EU population has grown from 380 to 455 million consumers, the land mass has become ¼ as big again in size, but the European Economic Area extends to include Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, while this area also has strong links with Switzerland through its membership of the European Free Trade Association • security considerations: protecting peace and security near to the EU’s new borders and near neighbourhood, with drugs, prostitution and terrorism – as well as that ongoing preoccupation of access to energy resources like gas and oil – are at the forefront of government and media attention

16. conclusions • ‘widening and deepening’ are relatively constant, certainly entwined, elements in a dynamic and ongoing European integration process • evolving out of the ECSC, it has grown in terms of membership … from the original Six  EC9  EC10  EC12  EU15  EU25 … and also, of course, in competence • what does the 21st century hold for the EU, Europe, and the wider world?