CHAPTER 6: Biological and Psychological Theories

1. CHAPTER 6:Biological and Psychological Theories

2. A. Introduction • 1) The emergence of the Positive school of thought shifted the focus of study from the act to the actor • a. Interested in the causality of crime • b. The theory that free will was a motivating factor in the commission of crime was largely discredited • c. The three major schools of thought in the Positive School of criminology: Biology, Psychology and Sociology

3. B. Biological school of thought • WHICH ONE IS THE MURDERER?> • 1) Is there any correlation between physical appearance and crime? Can you GUESS? • a. Cesare Lombroso was the first researcher to come up with the hypothesis that crime was connected with human evolution • b. Developed the notion that criminals were atavistic or primitive and also possessed a stigmata or distinctive physical features that set them apart from mainstream society

4. 2) What about body type and crime? • a. 1949- William Sheldon concluded that a relationship existed between one’s body type and personality • i. Endomorphs – soft roundness (relaxed, comfortable, extroverted “softies”) • ii. Mesomorphs – square masculinity and skeletal massiveness (active, assertive and lust for power) • iii. Ectomorphs – linearity and frailty (introverted, overly sensitive, and have a strong love for privacy)

5. b. Sheldon conducted studies and found that a possible link existed between mesomorphy and delinquency, which lead other researchers such as Juan Cortes, Florence Gatti, John Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein to conduct similar studies and experiments • c. Are juvenile delinquents classified as Mesomorphs more predisposed to a life of crime? Do law enforcement officials hold a negative view of mesomorphs that could possibly influence the way they are dealt with, (i.e. are they ‘picked on’ more?) • 3) Inherited delinquency? • a. Some people in the late 19th century believed that criminality was inherited and that Bad Blood or “germ-plasm” was spread through procreation • b. Possible relationship between IQ & Delinquency? • i. John Slawson claimed that IQ tests were culturally biased • ii. After an extensive study in 1926 by Slawson, no link was found between Intelligence, (the ability to learn), and criminality • iii.An IQ test was developed by Binet/Simon and refined by Stem around the beginning of the 20th century (IQ score = ratio of mental age x chronological age w/ the mean score about 100)

6. c. However, contemporary studies by Murray and Herrnstein have shown that, on average, a delinquent’s IQ is around 8 points lower than a non-delinquent • i. Also, similar studies have shown that crimes such as bribery, forgery, and embezzling are typically committed by offenders possessing relatively high IQ’s whereas crimes such as assault, robbery and sexual assault are committed by offenders with relatively low IQ’s • d. Several studies, (Kranz, Lange, etc.) have shown that monozygotic twins (identical twins) are more likely to exhibit similar patterns of criminal behavior than dizygotic twins (fraternal twins) • i. However, this may be due to the environment rather than genetics. (nature v. nurture) • e. Studies on adopted children have shown that they exhibit similar patterns of delinquency to their biological parents, rather than their adopted parents • i. Though adoption studies are better than studies on twins at separating the effects of the environment, there are some problems with this approach as well. • ii. The measures of criminality in these studies is not standardized, and children in these studies have had varying levels of contact with their biological parents

7. 4) Brain function and behavior • a. New research has indicated that criminality may be linked with brain structure in certain parts of the brain that effect abilities such as self-control and changes in the environment • i. Deficiencies of Serotonin levels in the brain have been linked with aggressive and impulsive behavior • b. Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) occurs when a brain produces too little serotonin, which may lead to delinquency • i. Symptoms of ADHD include but are not limited to hyperactivity, inattention, and low self-esteem (Typically, symptoms show up in children as young as 4 years) • ii. Between 3 and 8 million children are estimated to have ADHD and it is being diagnosed at a ratio of 3:1 (Boys/Girls) • iii. A study by John Satterfield has shown that children with this diagnosis are 25 times more likely to be institutionalized for anti-social behavior than those who are not diagnosed with ADHD • iv. In 2000, sales of drugs such as Ritalin, (which is often used to treat ADHD), reached an astounding $758 million dollars and over 90% of the world’s Ritalin is consumed by the United States!

8. c. Chemical poisoning • i. Chemicals can indirectly affect behavior by altering brain chemistry, and can affect the ability of an individual to react to the environment • ii. Particularly harmful is the chemical lead which was banned in paint products in the United States in 1978 • iii. Herbert Needleman conducted a study of leads effect on delinquency and determined that there may be a connection between lead poisoning and juvenile delinquency. • iv. Other chemical exposure through pesticides, garbage disposal sites and poor air quality have also been proven to have a negative impact on children • v. Exposure to these chemicals can lead to lower IQ’s, asthma, cancer and learning disabilities • d. The controversy over biological theories • i. Can crime be controlled if we eliminate these so-called “bad genes” and is sterilization a viable option? (Skinner v. Oklahoma 1942)

9. C. Psychological Theories • 1) Psychoanalytical Theory • a. Sigmund Freud developed the idea that a personality consisted of 3 parts • i. The id – present at birth, it consists of blind, unreasoning, instinctual desires and motives • ii. The ego – grows from the id and is the problem-solving dimension of the personality which deals with reality and differentiates it from fantasy • iii. The superego - develops from the ego and is the moral code, norms and values that the child has acquired • b. When either of these comes into conflict with each other, then it is possible that children may be more inclined to become a delinquent • c. Freud’s psychoanalytical theory was applied to the study of crime and some theorists argued that an under-developed or an over-developed super-ego could lead to delinquency • i. underdeveloped superego – the socialization process has been inadequate (unconscious urges may eventually translate into acts of delinquency) • ii. overdeveloped superego- too much socialization (can lead to impulses and urges which in turn can lead to a conflict between the id and the superego)

10. d. The 3 main criticism of psychoanalytical theory • i. No evidence that a causal link exists between a subjective internal state of mind and delinquency • ii. Does the personality truly consist of an id, ego and superego? • iii. Is it possible to predict that a causal relationship exists between early childhood experiences and future behavior? • 2) Behavioral Theory • a. Behavioral theorist’s feel that children learn how to behave through reinforcement (anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring) and punishment (sanctions that decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated) • b. B.F. Skinner postulated that environment shapes behavior • i. Operant conditioning, (a type of learning where subjects do something and connect what they do to a given response that they receive), was demonstrated by Skinner’s work with pigeons • ii. Skinner argued that juveniles repeat rewarded behavior and do not repeat behavior that is punished

11. c. Albert Bandura expanded on Skinner’s ideas and developed a theory of aggression which states that behavior is learned by children through modeling and imitating others • i. Bandura believes that children learn aggressive behavior through observation and through imitating others • ii. One of the more notable experiments he conducted focused on the effect of the mass media on aggressive behavior (the Bobo doll experiment) • d. Does the media have an effect on delinquency? • i. Examples – MTV’s jackass was blamed as the cause for a 13 year old Connecticut boy to lay himself across a barbeque grill. A nine year old girl hanged herself with a shoelace after watching the Man in the Iron Mask • ii. Beginning with Herbert Blumer in 1933, criminologists have sought to conduct interviews and experiments to determine whether such a relationship exists • e. How does the viewing of violent material affect children? • i. Children may get the notion from the mass media that violence can solve disputes, which may lead to delinquency • ii. Desensitization towards real life violence • iii. Fears of victimization may increase since violence in entertainment can lead to a perception that the world is a violent and hostile place

12. f. Millions of children watch violent T.V. on a regular basis but don’t act out the violence that they see, which leads many behavioral theorists to conclude that already aggressive youths have their behavior reinforced by viewing violence in the mass media • g. Critiques of behavioral theory • i. Pays little attention to the effect of mental processes on behavior • ii. How can pigeons being used as a test subject, (used in the Skinner experiments), accurately predict human behavior? • iii. Why is it that more children do not commit delinquency when they know the possible gains? • iv. Behavioral theory completely ignores the idea that free will may influence behavior D. Practical applications of psychotherapy and behavior modification • 1)The possible benefits of psychotherapy • a. It may be possible to control a child’s instinctual drive so that they will not experience any of the internal conflict linked to delinquency.

13. i. Psychoanalytic theory in juvenile justice became increasingly popular in the 1950’s due to organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) • ii. This school of thought gave rise to the notion that delinquency could be prevented by identifying likely offenders early on in life, (often referred to as “at-risk” youths) • 2)Behavior modification theory • a. The method for changing behavior through conditioning is referred to as behavior modification • i. Widely practiced in the 1960’s and the 1970’s • ii. The two major modification techniques that are still practiced to this day are aversion therapy, (which teaches children to correct unwanted behavior through punishment), and operant conditioning, (which uses a system of rewards and consequences often through a token economy which reinforce and punish behavior, respectively) • iii. A token economy is often effective since points are handed out for positive behavior that can be used to gain privileges, which reinforces positive behavior. Similarly, privileges can be taken away to punish negative behavior • END (Chapter 6 Notes)