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NOTES FROM THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE

NOTES FROM THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE. M. Tomak. GEORGE SARTON.

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NOTES FROM THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE

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  1. NOTES FROM THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE M. Tomak

  2. GEORGE SARTON • “History of civilization is the history of science. The reason lies in the fact that the main difference between today’s civilization and the antiquity is the scientific knowledge. Saints of today are no different than the ancient ones. Today’s artists are no more skillful than the ancient ones.”

  3. GEORGE SARTON • “But the knowledge of our scientists is much more and deeper. So, one of the most cumulative human activity is science. Thus, the most important difference between the two civilizations is in the levels of the scientific knowledge.”

  4. Times

  5. Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543Scientific Revolution

  6. Sun Centered System • Collected Observations (Zic: Astronomic almanac)

  7. Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) • Supported Copernicus, • “Libertes philosophica”, supported free thinking, • Burned in Rome.

  8. Enlightment • Starts with Kepler: Born,27 Dec.1571 near Stutgart , Lutheran, studied theology inTübingen University to be a priest but perfect in mathematics and astronomy. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

  9. KEPLER • Instead of becoming a priest, accepted a position as teacher of mathematics and Astronomy in Graz,Austria (later Graz University) (1594-1600).

  10. KEPLER • Universe is an image of God. • Tycho Brahe (who corrected Copernicus-zic by careful observations) invited him to Prag on Jan. 1,1600 (1600-1612). • Brahe died on 24 Oct., 1601. • Kepler takes his position and data, and starts to work on the trajectory of Mars.

  11. Freedom of the Mind! • Works on Mars data till 1605. • After 5 years in vain, abondons the idea of church, that favors circular orbits, • And discovers elliptical orbits!

  12. GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642) • Galileo Galilei, observes Jupiter’s moons in University of Padua(1610), with his telescope, contrary to the views of the church. • Supports Copernicus, • Does experiments on the motion of objects. Galileo Galilei(1564-1642)

  13. GALILEO “You cannot learn physics from the holly books. You have to do experiments for this. You can only learn how to be a good person.”

  14. Scientific Revolution 1543 Copernicus, 1609, 1619 Kepler, 1610 Galileo, 1620 Bacon 1637 Descartes, 1686 Newton 150 years, to abolish 2000 years old Aristoteles-Physics,Ptolemaios-Astronomy,İbn-i Sina – Medicine.

  15. Scientific Revolution is continuing.... • Nano-science today • LHC

  16. The year(s) of the nano

  17. Friction of Molecules • Micromachines gearing up? Microscopic gears may stick or grind to a halt because of novel kinds of friction at the molecular level. • A. R. Burns, J. E. Houston, R. W. Carpick, and T. A. MichalskePhys. Rev. Lett. 82, 1181(issue of 8 February 1999)

  18. Reducing Friction without Oil • Phys. Rev. Lett. 92, 126101 (2004) • Hair trigger. The "Tribolever" device can sense atomic scale forces on its tip in all three dimensions. Tribolever experiments demonstrated a regime of extreme slipperiness between the tip and surface

  19. How to Grab an Atom • Phys. Rev. Lett. 90, 176102 (2003) • Now you see it, now you don't. Researchers used the tip of an atomic force microscope to lift a single atom from a surface (above, before and after) and then replace it (not shown). The method works with non-conducting materials, unlike past atom manipulation techniques.

  20. The Magic of Nanoclusters • Phys. Rev. Lett. 88, 066101 (2002) • Clusters everywhere. Billions of identical metal clusters can spontaneously form on a silicon surface. Each triangle contains six indium atoms. (With more indium, the clusters fill in some of the empty space, making complete rows and columns of triangles.) The nanoclusters may be useful for electronic devices, for data storage, or for fostering chemical reactions.

  21. Nanocrystals • Phys. Rev. Lett. 84, 951 (2000) • Air-cleaning crystal. The first atomic-scale images of nanocrystals that help reduce pollution show a surprising triangular, rather than hexagonal, shape. The new information should help researchers improve the chemical process

  22. The atom at the tip of a nanotube is changing the vibrational frequency of the tube. NANO-BALANCE

  23. Molecular Conductivity Takes Shape • Phys. Rev. Lett. 88, 176804 (2002) • Mind the gap. By breaking a tiny gold bridge (shown in false color), researchers make electrodes for driving current through a single molecule. Now they have shown a specific way in which the molecule's shape affects its conductivity.

  24. Fullerenes • The fullerenes are a family of molecules with a closed cage of carbon atoms arranged in pentagons and hexagons. Each carbon is sp2 hybridized. • The most symmetrical member is buckminsterfullerene, C60. • Buckminsterfullerenes show potential for applications in superconductivity and catalytic activity.

  25. A frame model of C60.By permission of Dr. Richard Smalley, Rice University Buckminsterfullerene

  26. Nanotube Electronics Chips made from tubes. Appl. Phys. Lett. 74, 79 (1999) • Chips made from tubes. Adding atoms (blue and red) to an all-carbon nanotube makes the nanoworld equivalent of a semiconductor junction--the basis for computer chips

  27. Nanotubes Under Stress • HandeUstunel/Cornell Univ. • Springy Nanotubes. A carbon nanotube, when pressed in the middle, will stretch like a rubber band. According to experiments, the stretching modifies the quantum states available to electrons, which alters the nanotube's electrical resistance.

  28. Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) • Substrate wafers transferred to high vacuum growth chamber (red arrow) • Elements kept in K-Cells at high temp • Shutters over cells open to release vaporized elements, which deposit on sample Adapted from: Farrow, R.F.C., ed. Molecular Beam Epitaxy: Applications to Key Materials. Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1995.

  29. Ge30Si70/Si Quantum Well

  30. Quantum Well Quantum Wire Quantum Dot Bulk r2D(E) r1D(E) r0D(E) r3D(E) e1 e2 e1,1 e1,2 e4 e3 e1,3 Energy Energy Energy Energy Reduced Dimensionality Confining the electron motion in at least one spatial dimension affects the energy levels and the density of states… Based on Bimberg (1999)

  31. As Science was developing in the West, what was happening in the Islamic World?

  32. MADRASAHUniversity in Islamic World First: in Buhara 937, Faracek, 1067 Bağdat: Nizamiye medreseleri, 13th century Selçuk: Konya, Sivas, Kayseri,whole anatolia, Ottoman: 1331 İznik,Bursa, Edirne, İstanbul

  33. Madrasah:Curriculum • Ulum-u Nakliye: fıkıh, hadis, kelam, tefsir • Ulum-u Akliye: matematik, astronomi,

  34. University in the West • 1088 Bologna, • 1160 Paris, • 1167 Oxford, • 1200-1215 Montpellier, Padua, Orleans, Cambridge • North : Prag(1347), Karakov(1364), Viyana(1365), Heidelberg(1385), Kopenhag (1475), Uppsala(1477) • No similar development towards east...Byzantium ?

  35. University:Curriculum • Trivium: (Rhetoric, Logic, Gramer); • Quadrivium: (Arithmetics- Geometry, Physics, Astronomy , Music)

  36. Madrasah in Turkestan • Great men of science at the beginning: • Farabi(870-950), • İbn-i Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037).

  37. Something goes wrong!

  38. İMAM GAZALİ(1058-1111) • His book: “Tehafüt-ül Felasife: Felsefenin Tutarsızlığı”,Philosophy is not useful, • Everything is in Quran. • No need to do any research.

  39. İBN-İ RÜŞD (AVERROES)(1126-1198) • His book: “Tehafüt-ül Tehafüt: Tutarsızlığın Tutarsızlığı”. In Spain, Averroes critisizes Gazali; “Using your mind, you can reach the truth and the religous belief.” • West,prospers along İbn-iRüşd’sphilosophy. • But Madrasah goes along with İmam Gazali.

  40. Should we include İBN-İ RÜŞD ideas? • Question comes from the great conqurer.

  41. The Result of the Discussion Everybody says “Gazali”, including his own teacher (HocazadeEfendi), except Alaaddin from Tus, who favors İbn-iRüşd. Ottoman Madrasah keeps teaching only Gazali.

  42. AND THE RESULT...

  43. LÜTFİ from TOKAT • A teacher at madrasah, during the reign of Beyazıt II, is quoted saying: “Those who do not know geometry, can not judge correctly” • He is judged, in a tribunal under the presidency of “Sheikh ul-Islam ” and, • He is hanged Dec. 24,1494 at “At Meydanı”.

  44. EBU SUUD EFENDİ • Sheikh ul-Islam between 1545 –1574, • He is instrumental in Sultan Süleyman’s receiving the title of Kanuni. • He is trying to establish the state’s justice systemin a scientific manner.

  45. MEHMED from BİRGİ • In the same period, Mehmed Efendi from Birgi, is in favor of returning to the basics of islam. • He divides the sciences into two groups. • “Useful” which is the teachings of islam. • “Harmful”all positive sciences and logos(kelam). • All madrasahs are under Sheikh ul-Islam.

  46. TAKİYUDDİN OBSERVATORY • Müneccimbaşı Takiyyüddin (B: 1526 Egypt) convinces Murat III, to build an observatory on the hills of Tophane in1577. • A student of Birgili, Sheikh ul-Islam Kadızade, using the appearence of a comet, and epidemy of plague starting at 1578, convinces the Sultan that this is a result of watching the skys. • Observatory is demolished on 22 Ocak 1580. • A real start of going backwards.

  47. RESULT • This starts our dark ages that includes: 16th 17th centuries and the first half of 18th century.

  48. MILITARY DEFEATS • Russian navy destroys Ottoman navy in Çeşme in 1770. • The attack is being expected from the Black Sea, nobody checks the map of Piri Reis.

  49. AWAKENING • After only the defeats of this order, the reason is found as the lack of knowledge. This brought the need for new establishments. • The first educational institute established is Mühendishane–i Bahri–i Hümayun in1773, which is the base of today’s İstanbul Technical University. • The curriculum in this navy school was basically the natural sciences.

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