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1. Legal German

   Chapter 6
2. Historyof Legal German Legesbarbarorum: lexSalica, lexRibuaria Primitivecompilations: distinctionbetweentheftof a pig, acalf, adog, etc. (theftof a pig: 16 legal provisions) Barbarianlaws – drawnupin Latin Latin loanwords: e.g. Pacht(‘lease’) < pactum
3. Historyof Legal German Whencustomarylawswerein Latin, their original style had repercussions on themeansofexpressionintranslations Latin ofmedievalGermaniclaws - a mixtureofGermanicand Roman styles German- languageof legal proceedings on German-speakingterritories In court hearings – German judgesalwaysusedthevernacular (dialectsof Old German)
4. LinguisticconditionsintheHoly Roman Empire In 800 the Pope crownedCharlemagne Roman Emperor Whenthe empire waslaterdivided, thetraditioncontinued: Otto I got the centre ofthe Empire (today’s Germanyand northern Italy) andwascrowned Roman Emperorin 962: the (Germanic) Holy Roman Empire (HeiligesRömischesReichDeutscherNation. SacrumRomanumImperiumNationisGermanicae)
5. LinguisticconditionsintheHoly Roman Empire Over time, the Empire grewincreasinglypowerlessinrelation to theregional power centres Power oftheemperordiminished, thatofregionalprincesflourished Formally, the Empire lasteduntil 1806
6. Status of Latin and German Officiallanguages for theHoly Roman Empire for thewholeofitsexistence: German and Latin The same applied to the Imperial DietandtheImperial Court (Reichskammergericht) Viennacultivated Latin alongwith German
7. Status of Latin and German Medieval period: emperorshouldhave a commandofthelanguageoftheChurch; heardproposalsfrom his councilin Latin, respondinginthe same language AftertheReformation, the protestant Statesused new German written standard (Hochdeutsch) sinceLow German was no longeracceptedintheDiet
8. TheFloweringof Old Legal German From 13th c. dialectsof Old German overtook Latin as thelanguageoflaw Aftermid-13th c. the use of German spread to all areasof legal life (laws, decrees, judgments, privatedocuments) Gradually, German ousted Latin inthe imperial chancellery 1st lawin German: MainzerReichslandsfrieden1235 byFrederick II Many legal documents: bilingual (Latin and German)
9. TheFloweringof Old Legal German Old legal German, based on dialects – notuniform Some terms – stillused: anfechten (‘annul’), bescheinigen (‘to certify’), erweisen (‘todemonstrate’), verantworten (‘tobeanswerable for’, ‘guarantee’) Levelofabstraction – low: largenumberofwords to describeconcretecases Useofsynonyms or quasi-synonyms
10. LinguisticConsequencesoftheReceptionof Roman law TheHoly Roman Empire - no uniform legal systemcreatedbythe imperial legislator Laws – local Customarylaw – didnotcorrespond to theneedsof a German societycharacterisedbyrapid progress Need for anadvanced legal system
11. LinguisticConsequencesofReceptionof Roman law Europeanuniversitiestaught Roman law Notclassical Roman law but iuscommune(GemeinesRecht), createdbymedievallawyers Inharmonywith Canon law, created on thebasisof Roman law Roman law – stressedthe status ofthe Empire as a continuationofthe original Roman Empire
12. LinguisticConsequencesofReceptionof Roman law First professorsoflaw – trainedinItaly, in Roman law Primitivecommentaries on local German lawscouldnotmatchrefined legal doctrinesoftheItalianuniversities Professorsmovedfromcountry to country Intellectualisationof German law; need for judgeswith a theoretical legal training
13. LinguisticConsequencesofReceptionof Roman law Judgesofhigher German courts – lawyerswith a universityeducation In 1495 Imperial Court set up (Reichskammergericht) Half judges – noblemen, halfdoctorsoflaw Reichskamergericht applied Roman law (alsopartly Canon law) Recognitionbythe imperial power of Roman law as thebasis for German commonlaw (GemeinesRecht)
14. LinguisticConsequencesofReceptionof Roman law BeneaththeReichskammergerichtstoodthelower imperial courts, whichalso applied Roman law As theapplicationof Roman lawspreadinthe German justicesystem, layjudgesbeganasking legal scholars for opinions Casefiles - sent to universities German lawfacultiesprovided a kindofhigher court service esp. in 16th and 17th centuries
15. LinguisticConsequencesofReceptionof Roman law Status ofjudgeslackingknowledgeof Roman lawweakened, whilethatoflawprofessorsstrangthened Opinionsof legal scholarspublished: thuswasbornususmodernusPandectarum, in 17th c. ususmodernusiuris Romani in foro Germanico Importanceofformerlocallaw – reducedbyanimportantruleofevidence – anyonerelying on a local legal rule had to prove it
16. Consequencesofreception Receptionof Roman law – profoundlyinfluenced German law, conferring on it anabstractandconceptualcharacter Before – judge’s taskrequired some life experienceand a feel for justice; now – a technicalart to belearned more formally Justice – no longerbased on convictionoflayjudges but on theauthorityofCorpusiuriscivilis
17. Consequencesofreception Importanceof Canon law, esp. inthelawofinheritanceandsuccession Theideaofappealing a judgmentandthewritten procedure - alsofrom Canon law Reception – privatelaw (lawofcontracts, damages, lawofproperty)
18. Linguisticconsequencesofreception Latin loanwords Legal German – more abstractandprecise Fromtheendof 15th c. German legal terminologywassystematisedandpartlyLatinised Duringthereception period, Latin gave some 80% loanwordsin German
19. Linguisticconsequencesofreception To reducethedisadvantagesofLatinisation, a movementbegan to write works inwhichthe new legal systemwaspresentedinvernacularandin a simplifiedform Thechoiceoflanguagedepended on who thetextwasaimed at Criminallegislation – in German (ConstitutioCriminalisCarolina, 1532 – a splendidlanguageproduct, comparable to Luther’s translationoftheBible)
20. Linguisticconsequencesofreception Bymid-18th c. German-languagelegislation – stillfulloflinguisticallymixedtexts, withmany Latin quotations
21. Influence of Legal French 17th c. – Frenchbecame a dominant power, spreadingitslanguageandculture to othercountries, includingtheHoly Roman Empire SpanishandItalian – alsousedin some situations Influence ofFrench on German – strongerinthe late 17th andearly 18th c. thanthatofEnglishtoday
22. Influence of Legal French ManyFrenchloanwords: inthemid-17th c. thenumberofFrenchloanwordscomparable to thatof Latin loanwords Frenchcommerciallegislation – translatedinto German inPrussia French – internallanguageofthePrussianMinistryofForeignAffairs; in some cases – treatiesbetweentwo or more German-speakingstates – concludedinFrench
23. The German Enlightenmentand Legal Language German legal languageintheBaroque: binaryformulas – notenough; the same wassaid at least 3 timesindifferentways Lawyersbeat all otherscholars, includingtheologians, intheartofornamentinglanguage Sentencesgrew to absurdlengths
24. The German Enlightenmentand Legal Language Immensenumberof legal termsdue to linguisticheritageof Old German and legal fragmentationof German (e.g. Lat. pignus‘pledge, guarantee’ – 50 German equivalents
25. The German Enlightenmentand Legal Language 18th c.: ideal citizen – active, awareof his rights, ratherthanthepassivesubjectofformertimes, theobjectofadministrativemeasures Rightsofcitizens to obtaininformation on legal rules Cultivatedcitizensshouldknowtheirrightsandduties Requirement for clear legal languageanddraftingofintelligiblecodes
26. The German Enlightenmentand Legal Language Legal languageshouldbeconcise, simpleandunderstandable It shouldbeshort, inthe image ofmilitaryorders Legal textsshouldbeclearlyconstructed, mysteriousabbreviationsandcomplex sentence structuresabandoned, the use of Latin curtailed, wordsofforeignoriginreplacedby German words
27. Germanisationof Legal Language Herman Conring (1606-1681): “Ifyou use a foreignlanguage or one knownonly to thelearned, you are doing a (great) wrong to thepeople” InternaldecayoftheHoly Roman Empire in 17th c. followingtheThirtyYearsWar To regain national unity, the German languagewasneeded as a cohesivefactor Pushingasideforeigninfluences
28. Germanisationof Legal Language Becauseoflawyers’ resistance, thelanguageremainedunchangeduntilmid-18th c. Scholars – stillwritingin Latin Latin dominationlastedparticularlylonginadministrativelanguage
29. Germanisationof Legal Language Endof 17th c. some courts, such as Reichskammergericht, drewuptheirjudgementsin German Notaries – alsoused German Some ofthe legal terminology had alreadybeentranslatedinto German inthe Humanist period: proprietas > Eigentum, possessio – Besitz, ususfructus – Niessbrauch ‘use’, societas – Gesellschaft, bona fides – guterGlaube
30. Germanisationof Legal Language Legal science: thechoiceoflanguageof works presented at bookfairsinLeipzig: Booksin Latin 1701:55% 1740 :27% 1770 :14% Legal theses – publishedin Latin untilthemid 19th c.
31. Germanisationof Legal Language Endof 18th c.: German – themainlanguageofGerman legal culture; Latin – subsidiarymeansofclarifying new or difficultterms Binaryformulas- facilitatedunderstandingofterminology: purely German wordsclarifyingthemeaningofforeignwords: publiceundöffentlich, bona fideunduntergutemGlauben
32. Germanisationof Legal Language More radicaldemands: Legal German had to beentirelycleansedofforeignwords: methodicalGermanisation (Eindeutschung) ofthe German language No need for loanwords, sinceanysubjectcouldbedealtwithbyusingpurely German words Germanisationpresupposedformulationof new wordsof a scientific nature – artificialwords (Kunstwörter)
33. Linguisticimportanceofthe major codifications Enlightenment: the world had to beconceptualised as a rationalsystem, functioningwithvirtuallymathematicalaccuracy Inlaw: the major systematiccodificationswereanexpressionofthisnotion Law had to contain “rational” solutions “natural” solutions
34. Linguisticimportanceofthe major codifications Basicideaof legislative codifications – not to form a collectionof legal rulespreviusly applied but to create “natural” solutions: “codificationsof natural law” Settingtheseinforcemeantsettingasidetheiuscommuneof Roman origin
35. Linguisticimportanceofthe major codifications Holy Roman Empire - in no condition to codifythelawof German territories Works ofcodification – carriedout at a lowerlevel, inregionalStatesofthe Empire EnlightenedsovereignsoftheseStates set aboutelaboratingcodesinspiredby natural law, to produce legal rulescorresponding to theneedsofcitizensineverydaylanguage
36. Linguisticimportanceofthe major codifications AllgemeinesLandesrechtfürdiepreussischenStaaten(ALR, 1794), codificationofPrussiansustantivelawcoveringconstitutionalandadministrativerights as wellasprivatelaw, andAllgemeinesBürgerlichesGesetzbuch(ABGB, 1811), a codificationofAustrian civil law BavarianKriminalgesetzbuch(1813)
37. Linguisticimportanceofthe major codifications German codesof natural lawsought to improvethe legal protectionofcitizens Allcitizenswere to knowtheirrightsandduties Thesewere to appearclearlyandpreciselyin legal provisions The popular characteroflawsimpliedextendedcasuistry: regulationof German natural lawcodificationswashighlydetailed, compared to thatofthe German Civil Code (BürgerlichesGesetzbuch, BGB 1900)
38. Linguisticimportanceofthe major codifications Natural lawcodessought to guaranteethegreatestpossiblelevelofunderstandability; style: clear, paternalandpedagogical Search for clarity - lackof legal precision
39. Linguisticimportanceofthe major codifications AllgemeinesLandrecht-1st German-languagecodificationaimed at educatednon-lawyers; a breakthroughin German legislative languagethatconsiderablyinfluenced all later German-languagecodes; limitednumberofwordsofforeignorigin
40. Legal languageof a unifiedGermany In 19th c. Germanywasunifiedand rose to thepositionof a great power National language – importantreflectionofnationalism Cleansingthe German languageofforeigninfluencesintensifiedwithstrengthenednationalism; manyneologisms (e.g. in transport, over 1300 technicaltermswereGermanised 1886-93)
41. Legal languageof a unifiedGermany 19th c. numberofwordsofforeignoriginfellfrom 4-5 to 0.5% (e.g. Alimentation . Unterhalt, Desertion – Verlassung, Citation – Ladung ‘ summons’, Kopie – Abschrift)
42. Legal languageof a unifiedGermany BürgerlichesGesetzbuch(1900) almostcompletelyGermanisedterminologyof German privatelaw (Papierdeutsch) German lawyers – grewused to the new language; terminologyof BGB fuelledordinary German through use oflanguagebytheauthorities: commonparlanceadopted legal termsin a more general sense
43. 19th c. schoolsoflaw Notionsof natural lawgaveway to theHistoricalSchooloflaw Romanticviews - law is anorganicentityofeachsociety Previously, universalcharacteroflawunderlined - commonto all humanity New ideology: lawfashionedby separate heritageof a people
44. 19th c. schoolsoflaw Historicalschool – freshstrenghteningof Roman law Roman law - considered to beanessentialpartofthe German legal heritage Importanceof State power as creatorofthelaw – underlined Legal positivism, according to whichwrittenlaws are the sole or themainsourceoflaw, spread
45. 19th c. schoolsoflaw Previously- representativesof natural lawandtheHistoricalSchool had discussedcharacteristicsof “true” law Positivists no longer put thatquestion- Purelyformalcriteriawereenough to justifythevalidityof a legal rule; stressedthesupremacyof legislative rules, whichcouldbeexpressedclearlyandwithoutcontradicitons, contrary to legal rulesofothertypes
46. 19th c. schoolsoflaw Begriffsjurisprudenz ‘conceptualjurisprudence’ maintainedthatthe legal orderwas a systemformedby legal concepts Legal reasoningwas to bebased on thegroundingofconceptsinthesystem Eachconceptwas to finditsright place inthe legal system, enablinganoverviewoflegaleffects
47. 19th c. schoolsoflaw According to thisdoctrine, a logicalandexhaustivesystemof legal coneptsallowed sure andsimpleresolutionofdisputes: it wasenough for thelawyer to link thefactsof a dispute to thesystemofconceptstoproduceanalmost automatic resolution
48. 19th c. schoolsoflaw InteressenjurisprudenzandFreirechtsschule – reactionsagainstBegriffsjurisprudenz Interessenjurisprudenz : importanceoflegilsativeaimsstandinginthebackgroundof legal rules, inlegalinterpretation Freirechtsschulemaintainedtheindependentcharacterofapplicationoflawinrelation to writtenlaw Both: legal rulesmerely a meanstowardsattainingsocialends
49. BürgerlichesGesetzbuch, BGB, 1900 The most celebratedpieceof German legislation Excellentinternallogicofthecodes (on the model of natural sciences) but itscontent is noteasilyunderstoodfromthereader’s standpoint A monument ofrefined legal scholarship; written for judgesversedinlaw, notforlaymen
50. BürgerlichesGesetzbuch, BGB, 1900 Conceptualhierarchisation, “pyramidsofconcepts” Rechtsgeschäft ‘legal act’, ‘juristicact’, ‘actinlaw’, ‘legaltransaction’, ‘transaction’, ‘juridicalact’; Willenserklärung ‘declarationofintent’, ‘declarationofwill’, ‘declaratoryact’, ‘actof a party’; Schuldverhältnis ‘ legal relationshipetweencreditoranddebtor’, ‘obligation’, ‘debtrelationship’
51. BürgerlichesGesetzbuch, BGB, 1900 Manyarticlescanonlybeunderstoodwhenplaced side bysidewithotherarticleslocatedelsewhereinthecode Authorsofthecodesought to use each legal termin a singlemeaning
52. BürgerlichesGesetzbuch, BGB, 1900 Power of BGB liesintheformalisationofitsrules, balanceofstructuresand general principlesof civil law Thecodehasremainedinforcedespite great socialandeconomicchangesof 20th c. Inforcein DDR beforepromulgationofthe East German Civil Codein 1975 Receptionin far-offcountriessuch as Brazil and Japan
53. BürgerlichesGesetzbuch, BGB, 1900 Language – simpleandprecise, but alsohighlytechnical Manyabstractterms; understandingthesepresupposes a knowledtgeof legal structures to whichtheybelong; hermeticfromthestandpointoftheuninitiated Care taken to put asideverbosityandsubordinateclauses led to highlyabastractlanguage, with a noun-heavy style anddensesentences
54. Period aftertheSecond World War Therelaxationofnationalistlinguisticpolicy Anglo-American influence in legal language (e.g. franchising) Care for thequalityof legal language . Transferredfromcriticismofwordsofforeignorigin to problemsof sentence structure Awarenessthatthe ideal of a generallycomprehensible legal andadministrativelanguage is anunattainableUtopiaintheframeofthecomplex state oftoday
55. Characteristicsof legal German: Lexicalrichnessandconceptualdistinctions Wealthofterms; Germanictradition – wordy; numerousprefixes (ver-, ent-, un-, etc) thatcanbeattached to wordsandtheeaseofformingcompounds (e.g. Isolierglasscheibenrandfugenfüllvorrichtung) Legal thinkingbased on conceptualanalysisrequires a largenumberofclearlydistinguishableexpressions Verstoß‘violation (ofthelaw)’ covers 49 detailedterms, distinguishedbythedegreeofculpabilityoftheperpetratorandbytheruleviolated
56. Pure German word-forms WiththeEindeutschungpolicy, theappearanceof German legal termstoday – essentially national: normally, theseterms are notwordsofforeignorigin Enormousnumberof Latin calquesbased on legal Latin German and Latin legal cultureshavelived for centuriesinsymbiosis, intertwined
57. Pure German word-forms InSwitzerland – use offoreignwords more commonthaninGermany; thenumberofthesewords – twotimesgreaterinthe Swiss Civil Code (Zivilgesetzbuch, ZGB) thaninthe German Civil Code Legal German – a certainnumberofwordsofforeignorigin; apartfrom Latin, theyoftencomefromRenaissanceItalian, esp. incommerce: Bank, Konto, Risiko, Giro, Frenchwords – terminologyofinternationallaw: Konvention, Intervention Today: English (franchising, leasing)
58. Abstractcharacter Largenumberofepithets “…eineunterHinzurechung der ZusammenhangstätigkeitenbeiBerücksichtigungeinersinnvollenvernünftigenVerwaltungsübungnachtatsächlichenGesichtspunktenabgrenzbareundrechtlichselbständigzubewertendeArbeitseinheitderzueinembestimmtenArbeitsergebnisfürendenTätigkeiteinesAngestellten”
59. Abstractcharacter ‘A unitof work relative to theactivitiesofanemployeethatleadto a certainworkingoutcome, to bedelimitedaccordingtofactualaspectsandtobeindependentlyconsideredfromthe legal viewpoint, includingconnectedactivities, takingintoaccountreasonableandjudiciousadministrative use’ – Papierdeutsch Complexityoflanguage . Abstractcharacterof German legal thinking
60. Internationalcoherence German usedinseveralcountries: FederalRepublicofGermany Austria Switzerland EasternBelgium North ofItaly (SouthTyrol)
61. Internationalcoherence SouthTyrol – German terminologydevelopedsothat it is possible to use it to express everyItalianinstitution; theysought to knowifanItalian legal conceptcouldbeexpressedby a termalreadyadoptedinAustria, Switzerland or Germanywithoutthedangerofmisleadingconclusions; wherethatwasnotpossible – Italianloanwordor a neologismcreated on thebasisof German; as a result, abilingualdictionaryof legal andadministrativelanguageofSouthTyrolpublished: termsin German andItalian, definitionsinbothlanguages
62. Austrian legal German: history IntheMiddleAges – German wasnotunified; lettersfromthechancelleryoftheHoly Roman Empire – drawnupinvariousdialects At theendoftheMiddleAges, a Bavarian-Austrian standard widelyused (GemeinesDeutsch) - southern partsofthe German linguistic zone Reformation - aggravatedthelinguisticdivergencebetweentheLutheranandCatholic German regions
63. Austrian legal German: history Central regions ofGermanyintroduced a standard createdby Martin Luther (Lutherisch-Deutsch) as a counterbalance to the southern standard TheJesuitsdirectingtheCounter-Reformationenergeticallysupportedthedevelopmentof a separate South-German languagevariantofLutheranoriginintheCatholic southern German States
64. Austrian legal German: history Convictionthatthereexists a single German culturalnation - to compensate for theweakeningoftheHoly Roman Empire Struggleagainst Latin Unificationofwrittenlanguage: politicallyfragmentedcountryshould at leastbeunifiedatthelanguagelevel Solution: thewrittenlanguageofthe central partsofGermany
65. Austrian legal German: history Southern variantof German – weakened Decision to choosethe central German varianttakenby Maria TheresaandJoseph II Still: sharp rivalrybetweenPrussiaandAustria Austriaremainedoutsidethe Deutsche Bund, foundedin 1815; a separate power, largelyconsistingofnon-Germanicspeaking regions Didnotjointhe German Empire in 1871
66. Austrian legal German: history Austria had its own legal andadministrativesystem, whoseterminologywascreatedin 19th c. withoutthe influence oftheEindeutschungmovement TermsthatwereunknowninGermanyandthemeaningsofthe same termscouldbedivergent RulingclassesinAustria- incontactwithnon-German linguistic groups; a cultivated use of German developed, with no basisin German dialects: Schönbrunnerdeutsch or Hofratsdeutsch
67. Austrian legal German: history FollowingthefalloftheAustrian Empire, theinhabitantsofLittleAustriafeltthat it wouldbebetter to becomepartofGermany – rejectedintheVersaillespeacetreaty Hitler’s Anschluß Today – theideathatAustria is a separate countryvisible at thelanguagelevel
68. Austrian legal German: Features Legal German inGermanyandAustria - identical: same traditions Conceptualidentity; legal terminology – similar Differences: some 650 AustriantermsdifferfromcorrespondingtermsinGermany (13%) Defferences: designationsofcourts
69. Influence oftheEuropean Union Austrianaccession – minorchangesin legal andadministrativelanguage Law – harmonizedbydirectives, withtheircharacterofframeworklaws ThisallowspreservationoftraditionalAustrianterminologybecausefinalrules are formulatedinAustria Regulationsofdirectapplication – use theterminologyoftheFederalRepublicofGermany
70. Influence oftheEuropean Union On acceding EU, Austriareceivedpermission to sticktotraditionalAustrialwords for agriculturalproducts: RibislinsteadofJohannisbeere ‘red-currant’ (only 23 suchwords; a symbolicgesture)
71. Internationalimportanceof legal German Historically – German wasanimportantmeansofcommunicationinthe regions surroundingtheBalticSea (notablyintheHanseatic era) andinEastern Europe Solidpopulation base In 1800, German wasthelargestlanguagein Europe Late 19th andearly 20th c. officiallanguagein a substantialpartof Europe Largenumberofpeoplesof Central andEastern Europe - Intheimmediatesphereof influence of German; also: AlsaceandLorrainebelonged to the German Empire
72. Internationalimportanceof legal German German languagestudies: in 1800, widelystudiedinEngland; in 1900, the most popular foreignlanguagein France; before World War I: 3rd foreignlanguage; in Northern andEastern Europe -1st or 2nd foreignlanguage After 1918 positionof German weakened GermanyandAustrialostwar New non-Germanicnation-statesestablished: on territoriesthatbelonged to theseempires: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia
73. Internationalimportanceof legal German Defeatin World War II; culturalattractionof German diminished; eastern regions ofthecountryannexed to PolandandtheSoviet Union Internationalpositionof German – inferior to thatofEnglishandFrench Today: 90 million German speakersin Europe; thecorrespondingfigures worldwide: 120 million Economicweight: German occupies 3rd place worldwide
74. German as a Lingua Franca Internationalspreadoflawsof German-speakingcountries (Balticcountries, Nordiccountries, Central Europe, EasternEurope) - German political, economicandcultural influence InMiddleAges, theLawofMagdeburg applied in Vilnius; Ukrainiandocumentsfrom 16th to 18th c. refer to Sachsenspiegelcode as a validsourceoflaw; inpartitionedPoland, thelegislationofPrussiaandAustriawas applied
75. German as a Lingua Franca Great codificationsof 19th and 20th c.: BürgerlichesGesetzbuch. Adoptedinthecorrespondingcodeof Japan (1898), civil codesof Brazil (1916), Siam (1924-1935), China (1930) andGreece (1940) Influence of BGB: Hungary, Turkey, Mexico, Peru Structuresofthe civil codesoftheSovietrepublicsinthe 1920’s followedtheexampleof BGB
76. German as a Lingua Franca Swiss Civil Code (Zivilgesetzbuch, ZG, 1907) constructedusingthe legislative techniqueof popular character, datingfromthe Age ofEnlightenment, underliningtheunderstandabilityof legal provisions – used as a model abroad: inTurkey, a codethatimitates it almost word for word cameintoforceduringreformsof Kemal Atatürk; influence on FinnishInheritanceCode
77. German as a Lingua Franca A new waveof German legislative influence- duringthetransitionoftheEuropeansocialistcountries to themarketeconomyinearly 1990s; thesecountriessought legislative modelsin German-speakingcountries (e.g. theCzechRepublicand some formerrepublicsoftheSoviet Union
78. German as a Lingua Franca Positionof German legal science: German contribution to iuscommune; thankstothecommonlanguage, Latin, German works ofthe period werereadthroughout Europe 19th c. golden age ofmodern German legal science – influence all over Europe
79. Internationalimportanceof legal German IntheMiddleAges: Europeanscientificauthorsused Latin Fromthe Age ofEnglithenment, theyincreasinglyusedFrench German-speakingscholarspublishedtheir works in 2 or 3 languages: German/Latin, French/German/Latin)
80. Internationalimportanceof legal German 1794-1814 France occupied German territories; a reactionagainstFrenchlanguage: German scientificcirclesstartedusingGermanintheirstudies 19th c.: spectacularsuccessof German science, which rose to a dominant world positioninmanydisciplines In 1920’s and 1930’s German wasthemainlanguageofinternationalcongressesinphysicsandlinguistics
81. Internationalimportanceof legal German Thepositionof German as aninternationalscientificlanguageweakenedafter World War II German – notaninternationallanguageoutside Europe; official status onlyin 3 global organisationsandin 12 Europeanorganisations
82. Internationalimportanceof legal German EU: in 1994, only 6% of EU civil servantsmainlyused German inoralcommunication; thenumberof civil servantsusing German but withanothermothertongue . Stillsmaller: 3% (Dutch-speakingandDanish)