MOTIVATION

1. MOTIVATION • Processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. • Content Theories of Motivation • Contemporary Theories of Motivation

2. I) Hierarchy of Needs Theory Self-Actualization Esteem Social Safety Physiological

3. Hierarchy of Needs • Physiological: Hunger, thirst, bodily needs • Safety: Security & protection from physical and emotional harm • Social: Affection, belongingness, acceptance, friendship • Esteem: Internal (self-respect, autonomy, achievement) & External (status, recognition, attention) • Self-Actualization: Growth, achieving one’s potential, self-fulfillment

4. Hierarchy of Needs • As each of these needs becomes satisfied, next need becomes dominant • Satisfied need no longer motivates • Higher (satisfied internally) versus lower (satisfied externally) order needs

5. II) Theory X and Theory Y • After viewing the way in which managers dealt with employees • Under Theory X: • People inherently dislike work, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. • They must be coerced, controlled or threatened with punishment to achieve goals • They will avoid responsibilities & seek formal direction whenever possible • Place security above all other factors

6. Under Theory Y • People can view work as natural as rest or play • They will exercise self-direction & self-control if they are committed to objectives • They can learn to accept responsibility • Ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population

7. Theory X versus Theory Y • Theory X: Lower needs dominate individuals • Theory Y: Higher order needs • Theory Y assumptions are more valid than Theory X. • Participative decision-making, responsible & challenging jobs, good group relations

8. III) Two-Factor Theory • One’s attitude toward work can determine success or failure => “What do people want from their jobs?”; Situations in which employees felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs. • Opposite of “satisfaction” = “no satisfaction” • Opposite of “dissatisfaction” = “no dissatisfaction”

9. Hygiene Factors • Company policy & administration • Supervision • Relationship with supervisor • Work conditions • Salary • Relationship with peers • Personal life • Relationship with subordinates • Status • Security

10. Motivators • Achievement • Recognition • Work itself • Responsibility • Advancement • Growth

11. Contemporary Theories: I)McClelland’s Theory of Needs • Need for achievement: (nAch) • Seek situations attaining personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems • Receive feedback on their performance • Not gamblers, dislike succeeding by chance • Interested in how well they do personally • Prefer tasks of intermediate difficulty • Perform best when they estimate that they have a 50-50 chance of success =>Run own business, manage self-contained unit

12. McClelland’s Theory of Needs • Need for power: (nPow) • Desire to have impact, to be influential & to control others • Prefer to be placed into competitive & status-oriented situations • To be more concerned with prestige

13. McClelland’s Theory of Needs • Need for affiliation: (nAff) • Motive strive for friendship • Prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones • Desire relationships that involve a high degree of mutual understanding

14. II) Cognitive Evaluation Theory • Introduction of extrinsic rewards (pay etc.) for work effort that was previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease overall motivation. • Individual experiences a loss of control over his/her own behavior => previous intrinsic motivation decreases. • Verbal rewards versus tangible rewards

15. III) Goal-Setting Theory • Specificity of the goal acts as an internal stimulus • If factors (acceptance of goals) are constant => more difficult the goal, the higher level of performance (direct attention to the task, energize us, persistence, discover strategies) • Self-generated feedback (monitoring own process): more powerful • Goal commitment, task characteristics & national culture influence goal-performance relationship.

16. IV) Management by Objectives • Setting goals that are tangible, verifiable & measurable • Individual => Departmental => Divisional => Overall organizational • Four ingredients are common: • Goal specificity • Participation in decision-making • Explicit time period • Performance period

17. V)Self-Efficacy (Social Learning) Theory • An individual’s belief that he/she is capable of performing a task • How to develop self-efficacy? • Enactive mastery: gaining experience with the task • Vicarious modeling: seeing someone else doing the task • Verbal persuasion: someone convincing that you have the skills to have success But intelligence & personality are absent!

18. VI) Equity Theory • Comparing inputs (effort, experience, education, competence) and outcomes (raises, grading, recognition) to those of others O/IA < O/IB => Inequity of under rewarded O/IA = O/IB => Equity O/IA > O/IB => Inequity of over rewarded O/IA: Person (you) O/IB : Relevant others

19. When perceived inequity • Change inputs (don’t exert as much effort) • Change outcomes (lower quality) • Distort perceptions of self (I work harder than everyone else) • Distort perceptions of others • Choose a different referent • Leave the field

20. VII) Expectancy Theory • Theory focuses on these relationships: • Effort - performance • Performance - reward • Rewards – personal goals • People will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe that: • Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal • A good appraisal will lead to rewards • Rewards will satisfy the personal goals