[Broadly] Reflexive Hyperbole or: I am sterdam

1. [Broadly] Reflexive Hyperboleor:I amsterdam John Barnden Prof. Emeritus of AI School of Computer Science University of Birmingham, UK Metaphor Festival Amsterdam, August 2018 Summarizing and developing Barnden (2018) in Metaphor & Symbol

2. Some Examples of a (Diverse??) Hyperbolic Phenomenon • “John isn’t simply likeHitler, he IS Hitler.” • —Can Hyperbole about the likeness between John and HItler. • “Sailing isn’t just a part of Mike’s life. It is his life.” • —Can Hyperbole about sailing’s importance as a part of Mike’s life. • “[Certain underwater sculptures] literally becomethe ocean. They wear away, erode into liquid, and plant life spreads itself across them.” [Elder 2009] • —Can Hyperbole about the scultpures’ integration withthe ocean. • “Whenever Sally watches a Batman film, shebecomesBatman.” • —Can Hyperbole about Sally’s mental identification withBatman. • “Daniel Craig isn’t just good at actingJames Bond, he ISJames Bond.” • —Can Hyperbole about Dan C’s ability to convincingly act James Bond. • “When Bill is [deceptively] impersonating a cop [policeman], he becomes a cop.” • —Can Hyperbole about Bill’s ability to deceptively impersonate a cop. • “Jesuis Charlie.” • —Can Hyperbole about the speaker’s solidarity with [the Charlie H. staff].

3. One Extra, Extra-Special, Example! “I amsterdam.” [ = “I am Amsterdam”] What does/might this mean?? And why??

4. Theme of Talk • “X isY” [similarly: “Xbecomes Y”, “X turns into Y”, etc.] • can be used in what looks intuitively like an apparently diverserange • of hyperbolic ways • BUT in fact they are all special cases of one unified, simple type of hyperbole, not previously identified: • [Broadly] Reflexive Hyperbole (RH). • RH arises because the different uses of “X is/becomes/… Y” are all about: • broadly reflexiverelationships.

5. The Likeness Case“John isn’t simply likeHitler, he IS Hitler.” • WHYcan “John isHitler” be interpreted to be hyperbolic about LIKENESS? • ANSWER: Identity is the maximal case of likeness. So we just have hyperbolic descent down a likeness scale. • Given anything Y(e.g. Hitler), the degree of likeness that Y itself has to Y is • the maximum possible degree of likeness that anything X could have to Y. • So nothing can be more like Y than Y itself. • So, a claim that something X(e.g., John) is the SAME THING as something Y(e.g., Hitler) can be used hyperbolically for notably high likeness of Xto Y. • NOTE on metaphorical cases: This sort of hyperbole does NOT just drop out of existing theories of metaphor. [Barnden 2018]

6. The Part-Role-Importance Case:“Sailing is Mike’s life.” • WHYcan this be interpreted to be hyperbolic about the importance of the role • (PART-ROLE-IMPORTANCE or PART-IMPORTANCE) that sailing plays in Mike’s life? • Note: the role-importance could take any of many forms, or a mixture: • spatial, temporal, attentional, emotional, control over rest of whole, … • ANSWER:Identity is the maximal case of part-role-importance. So we just have hyperbolic descent down a part-role-importance scale. • Given anything Y(e.g. Mike’s life), the importance of the role that Y itself plays in Y is the maximum possible degree of importance within Y that any part of Y could play.So no part of Y could play a more important role in Y than Y itself. • So, a claim that something X(e.g., sailing) being the SAME THING as something Y(e.g., Mike’s life) can be used hyperbolically for notably high importance of X as a part of Y. • This sort of hyperbole does NOT just drop out of existing theories of metonymy [Barnden 2018].

7. Putting it More Generally … and Broadly • The reason that LIKENESS and PART-ROLE-IMPORTANCE can be hyperbolically presented by identity is that these relationships are reflexive, i.e.: • For absolutely everything Y of the appropriate type, Y bears the relationship to itself to the maximum possible degree. • This is a standard mathematical notion of reflexivity – see Barnden (2018). • It is a property of the relationship in general, not of its application to a particular thing. • But reflexivity is much more than what we actually need: • It is enough for the relationships in question to be judged to bebroadly reflexive, i.e.: • Normally, if Y is an entity of the appropriate type, Y bears the relationship to itself to an extremely high degree • (e.g.: (mostly) anything else would bear it to Y to a lesser degree). • This is slightly broader than the definition in Barnden (2018). • I’ll say the resulting hyperbole is “reflexive hyperbole”, even when the relationship is only broadly reflexive.

8. ((The IntegrationCase)) • “[Certain underwater sculptures] become [ / are]the ocean. They wear away, erode into liquid, and plant life spreads itself across them.” [Elder 2009] • —CanHyperbolic about the scultpures’ INTEGRATION withthe ocean. • The sculptures and the (original) ocean become/are parts of a bigger whole, with a notably great lack of divisibility between the parts. • The issue is not how important a role each of those parts play in that whole, but how INTEGRATED (intertwined, etc.) the two parts are. • (Strict) reflexivity: • The thing most INTEGRATED with any given thing Y is Y itself. • Or: the thing that Y has the greatest difficulty of being divided from is itself; in fact, here we have maximal difficulty (absolute inability).

9. The Mental-IdentificationCase • “Whenever Sally watches a Batman film, shebecomes [/ is] Batman.” • —Can Hyperbolic about Sally’s MENTAL IDENTIFICATION withBatman. • Sally (when watching Batman films) feels to a notably high extent that she is having the experiences of Batman, and has his world-view, goals, etc. [see e.g.: Cohen 2001; Igartua 2010] • Broad reflexivity: • Unless an agent Y has some sort of breakdown of or split in their sense of their identity or self • [see e.g.: Di Francesco et al. 2016: 162–167; Young 2017; Zahavi, 2005: 132–146] • the agent who feels most strongly and consistently that they have the experiences, world-view, etc. of agent Y is Y him/her/itself.

10. ((The Seeming-To-BeCase)) • “Daniel Craig isn’t just good at actingJames Bond, he ISJames Bond.” • —Can Hyperbolic about Dan C’s ability to convincingly act JB. • “When Bill is impersonating a cop, he becomes a cop.” [Also: insect/twig] • —Can Hyperbolic about Bill’s ability to deceptively impersonate a cop. • Dan Craig / Bill is making people who are watching/interacting with him feel,notably strongly that they are watching / interacting with JB / a cop. • In short: Dan Craig / Bill, is notably strongly (ABLE TO) SEEM TO BE JB / a cop. • Broad reflexivity: • the entity that is normally most ABLE TO SEEM TO BE, or DOES SEEM TO BE, a given thing Y is Y him/her/itself • (though we can imagine in particular cases that there is another entity Z more able to seem to be Y, by e.g. subtly exaggerating some characteristics and behaving throughout in a typical way for Y).

11. The SolidarityCase • “Jesuis Charlie [Hebdo].” • —Can Hyperbolic about speaker’s SOLIDARITY with [the CH staff]. • I.e.: the speaker, to a notably high degree, has similar goals, interests, etc. as the CH staff, wants to help the staff, is willing to undergo similar attacks, cares about the staff, etc. • [see, e.g.: Cambridge Dictionary; Oxford Living Dictionaries; Volokh 2015] • Broad reflexivity of all the component relationships: • E.g., the person/group that normally is the one most desirous of helping a person/group Y is Y him/her/itself • (though we can imagine in particular cases that a friend/partner/ … Z more strongly wants to help a Y who is self-defeating).

12. A Conjecture & A Caveat • It is plausible that, subject to one technical but important proviso, • any broadly reflexive relationship can provide [broadly] reflexive hyperbole. • If the proviso is violated, an especially strongly biasing context is needed to get reflexive hyperbole on that relationship, if this is possible at all. • See Barnden (2018) for a preliminary version of the proviso.

13. Some Other Cases Relationship of BEING A (POTENTIAL or ACTUAL) SIGN OF [incl. example, illustration, expression , symbol, symptom, representative of]: “Mosques are US [the Bosnian people]: … ” [PhD Thesis title: Aksamija, 2011] • From the abstract: • “[T]he contemporary mosque has become the primary locus where the emerging Bosniak nation can visually and symbolically shape and express its visions of itself.” • (Broad) reflexivity: An entity Y is normally an extremely good SIGNof itself: • e.g.: if you apprehend the visions, then you apprehend the visions! “Love is loaning your best comic magazines.” [From the Peanuts cartoons: Schulz 2006; discussed in Barnden 2018]

14. Some Other Cases, contd: • Relationship of LEADING TO (when you have X you also (now or later) have Y): • [strictly reflexive] • “… fans are like money... easy come, easy go... actually fans aren't only LIKE money... they ARE money, literally, in [the celebrities’ ] pockets [via buying their books etc.] ...” [AllAboutTRH Newsletter, 2013] • “Time is money” (not usually a metaphor) • Relationship of QUALITIES LEADING TO (qualities of X lead to qualities of Y) ?? : • [strictly reflexive] • “The immigrants [incoming Angles, Saxons and Jutes in the 5th-7th centuries] are not merely like us. They are us [Brits]. [They started] a nation with a rich, blended, multi-threaded cultural inheritance.” [Turner 2018]

15. Interesting Examples, contd:“Iamsterdam” [ = “I am Amsterdam”] From sites about its origin and intention [e.g., Stamp 2012, Travel Guide n.d.]: • It’s intended to express something that both residents of and visitors to Amsterdam are encouraged to feel, but residents and visitors would/should have somewhat different (merely overlapping) meanings for the slogan. Palette of plausible component meanings: • I strongly represent/epitomizeAmsterdam. • I and Amsterdam are alike in having the same spirit to a notably high extent. • I am a notably important member [part]of [the people of] Amsterdam. • “I amsterdam invites you to become a part of it: I amsterdam and you can be too.” • [Stamp 2012] • I am a notably well integrated with [the rest of the life of] Amsterdam. • I strongly mentally identify with the people of Amsterdam. • I strongly morally support the people of Amsterdam. • I strongly care for Amsterdam.

16. ConclusionsI am reflexive hyperbole, and you can be too! • RH is a particular type of hyperbole, but is widespread and straightforward (if neglected), and smoothly connected to other types of hyperbole. • It can be based on any broadly reflexive relationship (with one proviso). • The set of broadly reflexive relationships can be indefinitely expanded • (e.g. by inventing new types of likeness or part-role-importance) • & there may be BR relationships distinctly different from those in this talk. • A given utterance can mix different types of RH — not all sharply distinguishable anyway. • RH is not provided by metaphorical/metonymic interpretation in general, even though: • RH about likeness provides a special augmentation of metaphor interpretation • RH about part-role-importance can be classed as a special type of metonymy. • Much remains to investigate further, including; • Examples: “Toys/Metaphors/… [are] Us”, “We Are Church”, “L’Etat, c’est moi.” • The X/Y ordering (incl. in “I am England and England is me” – Oscar Wilde) • Negated versions (“He was not his mother, nor was he his family” - McEwan 2007: 72)

17. References Aksamija, A. (2011). Our mosques are US: rewriting national history of Bosnia-Herzegovina through religious architecture. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA. AllAboutTRH Newsletter (2013). Lisa Vanderpump calls Bethenny Frankel out for constantly trashing her! AllAboutTRH Newsletter, 20 December 2013, at https://www.allabouttrh.com/2013/12/20/lisa-vanderpump-calls-bethenny-frankel-out-for-constantly-trashing-her/, accessed on 22 August 2018. Barnden, J.A. (2015). Metaphor, simile, and the exaggeration of likeness. Metaphor and Symbol, 30 (1), pp.41-62. Barnden, J. A. (2017). A hyperbole-based account of the paradoxical usage of “literally”. In A. Wallington, A. Foltz, & J. Ryan Eds, Selected Papers from UK CLA Meetings (Vol. 4, pp. 111–130). ISSN 2046-9144. http://www.uk-cla.org.uk/proceedings/volume_4_37 Barnden, J.A. (2018). Broadly reflexive relationships, a special type of hyperbole, and implications for metaphor and metonymy. Metaphor and Symbol, 33 (3), pp.218--234. Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences with media characters. Mass Communication and Society, 4 (3), 245–264.

18. References, contd Di Francesco, M., Marraffa, M. & Paternoster, A. (2016). The self and its defences: from psychodynamics to cognitive science. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Elder, J. (2009). Jason de Caires Taylor: underwater sculptures. At https://shapeandcolour.wordpress.com/2009/01/23/jason-de-caires-taylor/, accessed on 22 August 2018. Igartua, J.-J. (2010). Identification with characters and narrative persuasion through fictional feature films. Communications, 35 (4), 347–373. McEwan, I. (2007). On Chesil Beach. London: Vintage. Schulz, C.M. (2006). Love is walking hand in hand. Cider Mill Press. (The aphorism on a slide above is from a review of the book at http://www.vintagechildrensbooksmykidloves.com/2011/02/love-is-walking-hand-in-hand.html accessed on 22 August 2018.) Stamp, J. (2012). Rebranding Amsterdam and what it means to rebrand a city.Smithsonian Magazine, 30 August 2012, accessed on 22 August 2018 at https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/rebranding-amsterdam-and-what-it-means-to-rebrand-a-city-19539392/

19. References, contd Turner, M. (2018). A blog post at http://www.martinturner.org.uk/2015/05/19/those-migrants-what-are-they-like/, accessed on 22 August 2018. Travel Guide (n.d.). I amsterdam sign. Amsterdam Travel Guide. At http://www.amsterdamtravelguide.com/discover-amsterdam/sightseeing-tours/in-amsterdam/i-amsterdam-sign/, accessed on 22 August 2018. Volokh, E. (2015). The two French meanings of “Je suis Charlie.” Washington Post, 9 January 2015, at https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2015/01/09/the-two-french-meanings-of-je-suis-charlie/?utm_term=.ae7d0f449d13, accessed on 29 June 2017. Young, E. (2017). Your true self. New Scientist, 22 April 2017, pp.29--33. Zahavi, D. (2005). Subjectivity and selfhood: Investigating the first-person perspective. Cambridge, Mass. and London, UK: MIT Press (a Bradford Book).