A and P Honors

1. A and P Honors • Chapter 1

2. Overview of Anatomy and Physiology • Anatomy – the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another • Gross or macroscopic • Microscopic • Developmental • Physiology – the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery

3. Gross Anatomy • Regional – all structures in one part of the body (such as the abdomen or leg) • Systemic – gross anatomy of the body studied by system • Surface – study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin

4. Microscopic Anatomy • Cytology – study of the cell • Histology – study of tissues

5. Developmental Anatomy • Traces structural changes throughout life • Embryology – study of developmental changes of the body before birth

6. Specialized Branches of Anatomy • Pathological anatomy – study of structural changes caused by disease • Radiographic anatomy – study of internal structures visualized by X ray • Molecular biology – study of anatomical structures at a sub-cellular level

7. Physiology • Considers the operation of specific organ systems • Renal – kidney function • Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous system • Cardiovascular – operation of the heart and blood vessels • Focuses on the functions of the body, often at the cellular or molecular level

8. Physiology • Understanding physiology also requires a knowledge of physics, which explains electrical currents, blood pressure, and the way muscle uses bone for movement

9. Principle of Complementarity • Function always reflects structure • What a structure can do depends on its specific form

10. Levels of Structural Organization Smooth muscle cell Molecules Cellular levelCells are made up of molecules 2 Atoms Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules 1 Smooth muscle tissue Heart Tissue levelTissues consist of similar types of cells 3 Cardiovascular system Blood vessels Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue Blood vessel (organ) Organismal levelThe human organism is made up of many organ systems 6 Connective tissue Organ levelOrgans are made up of different types of tissues 4 Organ system levelOrgan systems consist of different organs that work together closely 5 Figure 1.1

11. Levels of Structural Organization • Chemical – atoms combined to form molecules • Cellular – cells are made of molecules • Tissue – consists of similar types of cells • Organ – made up of different types of tissues • Organ system – consists of different organs that work closely together • Organismal – made up of the organ systems

12. Homeostasis • Homeostasisis the ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world • The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium • Chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact to maintain homeostasis

13. Homeostatic Imbalance • Disturbance of homeostasis or the body’s normal equilibrium • Overwhelming of negative feedback mechanisms allowing destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over

14. Homeostatic Imbalance • Can lead to disease. • Diabetes is a homeostatic imbalance.

15. Positive and negative feedback • Biological systems contain many types of regulatory circuits, among which positive and negative feedbacks. Positive and negative don't imply consequences of the feedback have positive or negative final effect. The negative feedback loop tends to slow down a process, while the positive feedback loop tends to accelerate it.

16. An example of a simple negative feedback loop

17. What if you get cold?

18. Positive Feedback Mechanisms • Homeostatic systems utilizing positive feedback exhibit two primary characteristics: • Time limitation – Processes in the body that must be completed within a constrained time frame are usually modified by positive feedback. • Intensification of stress – During a positive feedback process, the initial imbalance or stress is intensified rather than reduced as it is in negative feedback. • Typical Positive Feedback Process Stress Sensor Control Center Intensifies Effector

19. Homeostatic Regulation of Child Birth through Positive Feedback Nerve endings in the uterine wall carry afferent messages to the Hypothalamus Pressure of Fetus on the Uterine Wall Intensifies Production and Release of Oxytocin into the Blood Increasing strength of uterine contractions The birth of the child will bring this process to a close. Other examples of positive feedback regulation occur during milk letdown and blood clotting.

20. Feedback in Coagulation Positive feedback “mini-loops” are built into pathway to speed up production of chemicals needed to form the clot. Entire sequence of clotting is a negative feedback pathway:

21. Anatomical Position • Body erect • Feet slightly apart • Palms facing forward • Thumbs point away from body Figure 1.7a

22. Directional Terms • Superior and inferior – toward and away from the head, respectively • Anterior and posterior – toward the front and back of the body • Medial, lateral, and intermediate – toward the midline, away from the midline, and between a more medial and lateral structure

23. Directional Terms • Proximal and distal – closer to and farther from the origin of the body • Superficial and deep – toward and away from the body surface

24. Directional Terms Table 1.1

25. Directional Terms Table 1.1

26. Regional Terms: Anterior View • Axial – head, neck, and trunk • Appendicular – appendages or limbs • Specific regional terminology Figure 1.7a

27. Regional Terms: Posterior View Figure 1.7b

28. Body Planes • Sagittal – divides the body into right and left parts • Midsagittal or medial – sagittal plane that lies on the midline • Frontal or coronal – divides the body into anterior and posterior parts • Transverse or horizontal (cross section) – divides the body into superior and inferior parts • Oblique section – cuts made diagonally

29. Body Planes Figure 1.8

30. Anatomical Variability • Humans vary slightly in both external and internal anatomy • Over 90% of all anatomical structures match textbook descriptions, but: • Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of place • Small muscles may be missing • Extreme anatomical variations are seldom seen

31. Body Cavities Figure 1.9a

32. Body Cavities • Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisions • Cranial cavity is within the skull and encases the brain • Vertebral cavity runs within the vertebral column and encases the spinal cord • Ventral cavity houses the internal organs (viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions: -Thoracic and Abdominopelvic cavities

33. Body Cavities Figure 1.9b

34. Body Cavities • Thoracic cavity is subdivided into pleural cavities, the mediastinum, and the pericardial cavity • Pleural cavities – each houses a lung • Mediastinum – contains the pericardial cavity, and surrounds the remaining thoracic organs • Pericardial cavity – encloses the heart

35. Body Cavities • The abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the superior thoracic cavity by the dome-shaped diaphragm • It is composed of two subdivisions • Abdominal cavity – contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs • Pelvic cavity – lies within the pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

36. Ventral Body Cavity Membranes • Parietal serosa lines internal body walls • Visceral serosa covers the internal organs • Serous fluid separates the serosae

37. Ventral Body Cavity Membranes Figure 1.10a

38. Ventral Body Cavity Membranes Figure 1.10b

39. Other Body Cavities • Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities of the digestive organs • Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose • Orbital – house the eyes • Middle ear – contain bones (ossicles) that transmit sound vibrations • Synovial – joint cavities

40. Abdominopelvic Regions • Umbilical • Epigastric • Hypogastric • Right and left iliac or inguinal • Right and left lumbar • Right and left hypochondriac Figure 1.11a

41. Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions Figure 1.11b

42. Abdominopelvic Quadrants • Right upper (RUQ) • Left upper (LUQ) • Right lower (RLQ) • Left lower (LLQ) Figure 1.12

43. Cellular Metabolism • Cellular metabolism refers to all of the chemical processes that occur inside living cells.

44. Cellular Metabolism Metabolic processes – all chemical reactions that occur in the body Two types of metabolic reactions • Anabolism • larger molecules are made • requires energy • Catabolism • larger molecules are broken down • releases energy

45. ORGANIC BUILDING BLOCK MOLECULES Monosaccharides Amino acids Acetates Nucleotide bases Fates of Organic Building Blocks in ATP Metabolism ATP catabolic processes energy energy anabolic processes ADP+Pi Polymers & other energy rich molecules CO2 & H2O

46. What Effects our Metabolism? ↓↑ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ • Genetics • Age • Weight • Body Composition • Eating Frequency • Exercise • Nutrition

47. Sleeping 55 Watching TV 72 Eating 85 Sitting 85 Standing 100 Driving 110 Housework, moderate 160+ Golf, with cart 180 Golf, without cart 240 Walking 2mph 240 Dancing, ballroom 260 Walking, 3mph 280 Table Tennis 290 Mowing the Lawn 324 Calories Burned with Exercise/ Activity • Type of ExerciseCalories/hour

48. Skiing 340+ Tennis 350+ Water Aerobics 400 Skating/blading 420+ Dancing, aerobic 420+ Aerobics 450+ Bicycling, moderate 450+ Soccer 460+ Jogging, 5mph 500 Swimming, active 500+ Cross country ski machine 500+ Hiking 500+ Step Aerobics 550+ Rowing 550+ Power Walking 600+ Cycling, studio 650 Skipping with rope 700+ Running 700+ Calories Burned per hour

49. Kinetics • Force: push or pull that tends to produce acceleration • Important factor in injuries • Vector

50. d Kinetics • Idealized force vector • Force couple system F F’ F M=Fd d d = = F F