Temperature Regulation

1. Temperature Regulation

2. An Overview of Heat Balance • Humans are homeotherms • Maintain constant body core temperature • Heat loss must match heat gain • Normal core temperature is 37°C • Above 45°C • May destroy proteins and enzymes and lead to death • Below 34°C • May cause slowed metabolism and arrhythmias

3. Temperature Measurement During Exercise • Deep-body (core) temperature • Measured at rectum, ear, or esophagus • Usually in laboratory • Ingestible temperature sensor telemetry system • In athletes during practice sessions • Skin temperature • Thermistors at various locations • Calculate mean skin temperature Tskin = (Tforehead + Tchest + Tforearm + Tthigh + Tcalf + Tabdomen + Tback) ÷ 7

4. Summary • Measurements of deep-body temperature can be accomplished via mercury thermometers or thermocouples or thermistors. • Common sites of measurement: the rectum, the ear (tympanic temperature) & the esophagus. • Skin temperature is measured by placing temperature sensors (thermistors) on the skin at various locations.

5. Heat Production • Voluntary • Exercise • 70–80% energy expenditure appears as heat • Involuntary • Shivering • Increases heat production by ±5 times • Action of hormones • Thyroxine • Catecholamines • Called non-shivering thermogenesis

6. Heat Production

7. Heat Loss • Radiation • Transfer of heat via infrared rays • 60% heat loss at rest • Can be a method of heat gain • Conduction • Heat loss due to contact with another surface • Convection • Heat transferred to air or water • Example: a fan pushing air past skin

8. Heat Loss • Evaporation • Heat from skin converts water (sweat) to water vapor • Requires vapor pressure gradient between skin and air • Evaporation rate depends on: • Temperature and relative humidity • Convective currents around the body • Amount of skin surface exposed • Body loses 0.58 kcal heat/L sweat evaporated • 1 L sweat results in heat loss of 580 kcal • 25% heat loss at rest • Most important means of heat loss during exercise

9. Heat Exchange Mechanisms During Exercise

10. Heat Storage in the Body During Exercise • Heat produced that is not lost is stored in body tissues • Will raise body temperature • Amount of heat required to raise body temperature • Specific heat of human body is 0.83 kcal/kg Body heat gain during exercise = heat produced – heat loss Heat required to raise body temp 1°C = specific heat x body mass

11. Muscular exercise can result in large amounts of heat production. • Since the body is at most 20% to 30% efficient, 70% to 80% of the energy expended during exercise is released as heat. • Body heat can be lost by evaporation, convection, conduction, and radiation. • During exercise in a cool environment, evaporation is the primary source of heat loss.

12. The rate of evaporation from the skin is dependent upon three factors: • (1) temperature and relative humidity • (2) convective currents around the body • (3) the amount of skin exposed to the environment. • Body heat storage is the difference between heat production and heat loss. • The amount of heat required to elevate body temperature by 1°C is termed the specific heat of the body.

13. The Body’s Thermostat—Hypothalamus • Anterior hypothalamus Responds to increased core temperature Begin to sweat: • Increased evaporative heat loss • Increased skin blood flow • Allows increased heat loss • Posterior hypothalamus • Responds to decreased core temperature • Shivering and increased norepinephrine secretion • Increased heat production • Decreased skin blood flow • Decreased heat loss

14. Physiological Responses to “Heat Load”

15. Physiological Responses to Cold Stress

16. Shift in Hypothalamic Set Point Due to Fever • Fever: • Increased body temperature above normal • Due to pyrogens • Proteins or toxins from bacteria • Change in set point of hypothalamus

17. Thermal Events During Exercise • As exercise intensity increases: • Heat production increases • Linear increase in body temperature • Core temperature proportional to active muscle mass • Higher net heat loss • Lower convective and radiant heat loss • Higher evaporative heat loss • As ambient temperature increases: • Heat production remains constant • Lower convective and radiant heat loss • Higher evaporative heat loss

18. Changes in Metabolic Energy Production and Heat Loss During Exercise

19. Body Temperature During Arm and Leg Exercise

20. Heat Exchange During Exercise at Different Environmental Temperatures

21. Thermal Events During Exercise • Increase in body temperature is directly related to exercise intensity • Body heat load increases with intensity

22. Mechanisms of heat loss during exercise 1. Evaporation • Most important means of heat loss 2. Convection • Small contribution 3. Radiation • Small role in total heat loss

23. Heat Exchange At Rest and During Exercise

24. Heat Index • Measure of body’s perception of how hot it feels • Relative humidity added to air temperature • Example: • Air temperature = 80°F, relative humidity = 80% • Heat index = 89°F (31.67°C) • High relative humidity reduces evaporative heat loss • Lowers heat loss • Increases body temperature

25. Relationship of Relative Humidity (%), Temperature, and Heat Index

26. Exercise in the Heat • Inability to lose heat • Higher core temperature • Risk of hyperthermia and heat injury • Higher sweat rate • May be as high as 4–5 L/hour • Risk of dehydration

27. Core Temperature and Sweat Rate During Exercise in a Hot/Humid Environment

28. Exercise-Related Heat Injuries Can Be Prevented • Guidelines • Exercise during the coolest part of the day • Minimize exercise intensity and duration on hot/humid days • Expose a maximal surface area of skin for evaporation • Provide frequent rests/cool-down breaks with equipment removal • Avoid dehydration with frequent water breaks • Rest/cool-down breaks should be in the shade and offer circulating, cool air

29. Prevention of Dehydration During Exercise • Dehydration of 1–2% body weight can impair performance • Hydrate prior to performance • 400–800 ml fluid within three hoursprior to exercise • Consume 150–300 ml fluid every 15–20 min • Volume adjusted based on environmental conditions • Ensure adequate rehydration • Consume equivalent of 150% weight loss • 1 kg body weight = 1.5 L fluid replacement • Monitor urine color • Sports drinks are superior to water for rehydration

30. Exercise Performance in a Hot Environment • Can result in muscle fatigue and impaired performance • Reduced mental drive for motor performance • Reduced muscle blood flow • Accelerated glycogen metabolism • Increased lactic acid production • Increased free radical production

31. Exercise in the Heat Accelerates Muscle Fatigue • Rapid onset of muscle fatigue in hot/humid environments • Heat-related muscle fatigue due to: • High brain temperature reduces neuromuscular drive • Reduction in motor unit recruitment • Accelerated muscle glycogen metabolism and hypoglycemia • Controversial • Increased free radical production • Damage to muscle contractile protein

32. Gender and Age Differences in Thermoregulation • Women less heat tolerant than men • Lower sweat rates • Higher percent body fat • Age itself does not limit ability to thermoregulate • Decreased thermotolerance with age due to: • Deconditioning with age • Lack of heat acclimatization

33. Heat Acclimatization • Requires exercise in hot environment • Adaptations occur within 7–14 days • Increased plasma volume • Earlier onset of sweating • Higher sweat rate • Reduced sodium chloride loss in sweat • Reduced skin blood flow • Increased cellular heat shock proteins • Acclimatization lost within a few days of inactivity

34. Can Sweat Clothing Promote Heat Acclimatization? • Training in cool climates using sweat clothing • Alternative to traveling to warmer climate to acclimatize • Raises body temperature • Does it work? • Yes, but not as effective as training in hot/humid environment • Increases sweat rate and body water loss • Not effective for fat loss • Risk of hyperthermia and heat injury

35. Heat Acclimatization and Heat Shock Proteins • Heat acclimatization reduces the risk of heat injury • In response to exposure of heat stress • Related to synthesis of heat shock proteins • Protect cells from thermal injury • Stabilizing and refolding damaged proteins

36. Primary Adaptations of Heat Acclimatization

37. Summary • During prolonged exercise in a moderate environment, core temperature will increase gradually above the normal resting value & will reach a plateau at ± 30 to 45 minutes. • During exercise in a hot/humid environment, core temperature does not reach a plateau, but will continue to rise. Long-term exercise in this type of environment increases the risk of heat injury. • Heat acclimatization results in: (1) an increase in plasma volume, (2) an earlier onset of sweating, (3) a higher sweat rate, (4) a reduction in the amount of electrolytes lost in sweat, (5) a reduction in skin blood flow, and (6) increased levels of heat shock protein in tissues.

38. Exercise in a Cold Environment • Enhanced heat loss • Reduces chance of heat injury • May result in hypothermia • Loss of judgment and risk of further cold injury • Cold acclimatization • Results in lower skin temperature at which shivering begins • Maintain higher hand and foot temperature • Improved peripheral blood flow • Improved ability to sleep in the cold • Due to reduced shivering • Adaptations begin in 1 week

39. Revision Questions • Why is a significant increase in core temperature a threat to life? (3) • Describe the voluntary and involuntary heat production mechanisms. (4) • What are the 4 ways that heat can be lost? (4) • Describe the evaporation rate & describe what factors this rate depends on. (6) • What are the functions of the anterior hypothalamus? (3) • What are the functions of the posterior hypothalamus? (3) • Discuss the thermal events during exercise? (8) • What is the heat index and how is it used? (4) • Discuss exercise in the heat/ hot environments. (8)

40. Revision Questions • Briefly outline the thermal events that occur during prolonged exercise in a moderate environment. Include in your discussion information about changes in core temperature, skin blood flow, sweating and skin temperature. (10) • What are the guidelines to prevent exercise related heat injuries. (7) • What are the ways to prevent dehydration during exercise? (5) • How does exercising in the heat accelerate muscle fatigue? (6) • What differences do age and gender have on thermoregulation? (4) • How do we acclimatize to heat? (8) • What are the primary adaptations to heat acclimatization? (4) • How do we adapt to cold environments? (6)