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Hello, Everyone!

Explore the study of syntax, which deals with how words combine to form sentences, including word order, syntactic relations, and grammatical construction. Discover the different types of word order and the substitutability and co-occurrence of words.

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  1. Hello, Everyone!

  2. Chapter Four From Word to Text

  3. New Content Syntax 句法（学）

  4. Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.

  5. The difference between morphology and syntax: • Morphology deals with ________. • Syntax deals with ____________. • Internal composition of a word. • Combination of words. Internal composition of a word. Combination of words

  6. The origin of the word “syntax”: syntax syn tax together to arrange arrangement • The definition of SYNTAX: ● the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences ● the formation of sentences（句子的组成或句子的构造）

  7. How to arrange words into phrases, clauses or sentences? ---- syntactic relations （句法关系） ---- grammatical construction and constituents （结构与成分） ---- syntactic function （句法功能） • How to form text? ---- recursiveness （递归性） ---- sentence connection / cohesion

  8. Syntactic Relations • Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds, namely, positional relation（位置关系）; relation of substitutability（可替代关系）; [,səbstə,tjutə'biləti] and,relation of co-occurrence（同现关系）

  9. The boy kicked the ball. • 1. the little boy, kicked, the ball • 2. the door • his legs • 3. naughty boy • handsome boy • beautiful boy word order substitutability collocation

  10. Positional Relation • POSITIONAL RELATION, orWORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. (p73) • If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language ungrammatical /nonsensical sequences

  11. The boy kicked the ball. * Boy the ball kicked the. *The ball kicked the boy. Or The teacher saw the students. The students saw the teacher. grammatically well-formed but opposite meanings

  12. Other (related) names • Syntagmatic relations组合关系 syntagmatic [,sintæg'mætik] • Horizontal relations水平关系 • Chain relations. 链状关系

  13. Word order is one of the ways to classify languages in the world. • In the way of classification of Word Order , there are totally six possible types of language, they are: SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.

  14. Relation of Substitutability • Firstly, the RELATION OF SUBSTITUTABILITY refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. (p74) • Secondly, it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set. replace words

  15. eg: The _________ smiles. man boy girl The _________ smiles. strong man tallest boy pretty girl

  16. Other names • PARADIGMATIC relation 聚合关系 paradigmatic [,pærədiɡ'mætik] • VERTICAL relations 纵向关系 • CHOICE relations 选择关系 • ASSOCIATIVE relation 联想关系

  17. Syntagmatic (组合关系) vs. paradigmatic (聚合关系) • syn-: together • Para-: vertical, paragraph, paraphrase, parallel…

  18. Axis of chain Positional relation Word order Axis of choice Relation of substitutability

  19. Syntagmatic (组合关系): the relations between units which combine to form sequences/ sentences. • paradigmatic (聚合关系): the relation between units which could be substituted for each other in the sentences.

  20. examples • I gave Tracy the book. • I gave Tracy the book. • passed • handed • threw Syntagmatic relation (组合关系): paradigmaticrelation (聚合关系):

  21. Relation of Co-occurrence • CO-OCCURRENCE words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set of or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence, e.g.: A nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase. • Thus relation of co-occurrence partly/sometimes belong to syntagmatic relations, partly/sometimes to paradigmatic relations.

  22. 同现关系是指：不同集合的词语允许或要求另一集合或类别的词语一起组成句子或句子的某一特定成分。如：名词短语可以前置限定词和形容词，后跟动词短语。同现关系是指：不同集合的词语允许或要求另一集合或类别的词语一起组成句子或句子的某一特定成分。如：名词短语可以前置限定词和形容词，后跟动词短语。

  23. (preceded by) NP (followed by) A pretty girl smiles The tallest boy sings The African man cries

  24. Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents • grammatical construction; • immediate constituents（直接成分）; • endocentric and exocentric construction (向心结构和离心结构) ; • coordination and subordination（并列与从属）

  25. 1. Is a sentence only a linear structure? • No, it’s not only about the linear order: the sequence in which grammatical elements such as subject is followed by a verb, and object occurs after a verb in sentences.

  26. hierarchical [.haiə'rɑ:kikəl]   分层的,体系的 of levels • But also hierarchical, about the logical relation. Such as in the noun phrase, an adjective is inferior as it modifies the noun. The noun is more important. • Jack is a diligent student. • A sentence can be analyzed into constituents/component parts. Conversely, constituents can combine to form increasingly larger units.

  27. We analyze a sentence into small parts. • Construction • constituent

  28. 2. Grammatical construction and its constituents 2.1 Grammatical Construction • Construction: A construction may be a sentence, a word group or a word. In other words. • an apple • ate an apple • Mary ate an apple

  29. Construction & constituent • Construction: A construction may be a sentence, a word group or a word. In other words, a construction is a relationship between constituents • The man bought a car. • Constituent: component elements in a construction.

  30. construction • The man bought a car. • The man, • bought the car • The man /bought a car Constituents Immediate constituents

  31. The man bought a car. • The man construction • The, man immediate constituents • bought a car construction • Bought, a car immediate constituents

  32. The man bought a car. • The man, bought a car. • The, man, bought, a, car. immediate c ultimate c

  33. 2 kinds of constituents • 1. Immediate constituents (直接成分): constituents, or parts immediately, directly, below the level of construction. • 2. Ultimate constituents（最终成分）: the smallest constituents, or parts obtained through division.

  34. E.g. • 1. The girl is giggling. • The girl: the, girl • 2. the boy ate the apple. • The boy: the, boy • Ate the apple: ate, the apple • The apple: the, apple

  35. The three ways of IC analysis • 1. Slashes • Poor John ran away. • 2. brackets • [Poor John] [ran away]. • [(Poor) (John)] [(ran) (away)]. Ⅱ Ⅱ

  36. 3. tree diagram • P77 • We will just master some simple sentences and phrases.

  37. 1. old men and women • old men and women • 2. old men and women • old men and women

  38. Practice 3 • Draw the tree diagram and try to show the ambiguity. • 1. Leave the book on the shelf. • 2. More expensive dresses • 3. My small child’s cot

  39. Leavethebookon theshelf • Leavethebookontheshelf

  40. Phrase StructureTree diagram S NP VP Det N V NP Det N The girl ate the apple

  41. Data for adjective phrases • 1. He is fond of music. • 2. I am interested in computer science. • 3. He is afraid of dark. • 4. The man is happy. • AP A+(PP)…

  42. NP (D)+ N+ (PP)… • VP V+(NP)+(PP)… • V+(Prt)+(NP) • AP A+(PP)… • PP P+(NP)… • S NP+VP

  43. Draw the tree diagrams of some basic sentences: • 1. A boy fooled the class. • 2. The pavilion on the hill collapsed in the wind. • 3. He was sorry for it. • 4. The teacher turned off the light.

  44. in on the hill The pavilion the wind collapsed

  45. More complex ones • VP He eats an apple. He ate an apple. He is eating an apple. He will eat an apple. He could have eaten the apple. The apple is eaten by the boy. We shall also learn to show the tense, aspect here.

  46. However, IC analysis is primitive.

  47. Construction & constituent • Construction: A construction may be a sentence, a word group or a word. In other words, a construction is a relationship between constituents • The man bought a car. • Constituent: component elements in a construction.

  48. Two kinds of constructions • p78

  49. Endocentric and exocentric constructions Endocentric [.endəu'sentrik]   adj.内向的向心的 • head • Head(中心词): the central part of a phrase. • The central element which is distributionally (functionally) equal to the phrase as a whole. • e.g. the fat lady in the park • I know • exocentric  [.eksəu'sentrik]   • adj. 外向的,离心的 • the fat lady in the park. the lady

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