THEORY AND REASONING

1. THEORY AND REASONING Yolanda C. Lang, CRNP, Dr.Ph

2. CHAPTER ONE Questions How to make a decision Critical Thinking Sponge Panning for gold Which is best

3. Intelligent Guess = Critical thinking Opinion Emotions Question presentation not presenter Critical thinkers are always open to change Critical thinkers able to defend their position

4. Critical thinkers question all beliefs – own and others Critical thinkers need curiosity and courage

5. RIGHT QUESTIONS What is the main issue What are the reasons Which phrases are ambiguous What are the value conflicts What are the deceptive assumptions Are fallacies in reasoning

6. How good is the evidence Are there rival causes Are the statistics deceptive Any significant information omitted What reasonable conclusions are possible

7. CHAPTER TWO Issue = stimulus for discussion Types of issues Deceptive Prescriptive

8. Conclusion Message that the presenter wishes to accept Main point Usually inferred Must have support Outcome Thesis Central message

9. Finding the conclusion Check issue Title Opening paragraph Skim Indicator works Beginning/end paragraph Find a conclusion – not an example Check authors background

10. Reasons Why hold opinion Beliefs Evidence Metaphors Why accept another viewpoint Why accept conclusions

11. Argument Have an intent Convince us to believe Call for reaction/action Quality of arguments Two components – conclusion and reason Failure to identify components

12. Conclusion Does it make sense If so – WHY Indicator words

13. Reasons Kinds Statement of evidence Facts Weak reason = weak reasoning Check own beliefs Avoid backward reasoning

14. Chapter four Know meaning of words Know meaning of reasons/conclusions Do NOT presume – same words – different meanings Locate key words/phrases Identify key terms Look for abstract words

15. What does presenter mean What do you mean Rarely defined Dictionary usage Advertisements Emotional impact

16. Reader Responsibility Stop clarifying at some point Strive for Clarity Specific criteria Concrete illustrations Know audience

17. Components of reasoning Key terms/phrases Which key terms are adequately defined Which have different definitions which can change meanings Which are ambiguous within the context of the argument

18. Chapter five Hidden information might be more important to argument Reason might be true but not supportive of conclusion Certain ideas are taken for granted

19. Value Assumptions Influence prescriptive arguments What world should be Social issues Important to person or not Same value does not carry same weight in every situation Check background of presenter and audience

20. Magnitude of consequence effect value preference Controversial issue – value Conflict between welfare of individual and society – value Find own value assumptions

21. Descriptive Assumptions Why world IS Logically connected What IS Taken for granted connection STRONG basis to accept granted assumptions

22. Evaluation Connect Logical Supported in world Conclusion incorrect considering reasons Do you know enough about subject to make conclusions about his/her reasoning

23. Fallacies in reasoning Strenths/weakness of reasoning Acceptability of conclusion Tricks

24. Common Fallacies Shifting words Hasty generalization Attacking person not reason Name calling Emotional appeals Ad population arguments

25. Creation of false dilemma Glittering generalization Pet slogans Red herring Assuming perfect solution Changing words

26. Evidence How good is evidence Is evidence fact or not Is evidence an opinion

27. Judgment Judgment questions What is the proof Where is the evidence Are you sure it is true How do you know it is true Why do you believe it Can you prove it

28. Facts/evidence Facts Descriptive conclusions Reasons Descriptive assumptions

29. Dependable fact Common knowledge Claim as a conclusion Solid evidence

30. Evidence Intuition Personal observations Examples Statistics Analogies Authorities.

31. Authority - expert Disagree Wrong Why Direct source Secondary source Bias of presenter Reputation of presenter Guarantees

32. Personal testimonials

33. Evidence Personal observation Case studies Very dramatic

34. Research Studies Verify Stats Multiple observers Laboratory controlled Contradiction Conclusion change over time How controlled is research

35. Generalization Sample Over Surveys Honest Wording Length Collection

36. Analogies Not really evidence Check comparisons How similar How different Relevance of above

37. Rival Cause Different interpretation Most plausible Favorite cause Combination of causes Redo research

38. Decrease rival causes No financial reward Has control group Extraneous factors controlled Use random assignment Participants do not know outcome

39. Post Hoc Fallacy If B occurs A must of caused it Check bias Check influence Check consistency with facts

40. Statistics Numbers Check alarming numbers Average Range Distribution Consistency How obtained Draw own conclusion

41. Omitted information Limited space/time Limited knowledge Attempt to deceive Presenter values

42. Omitted clues Check opposite Check reference How facts obtained Any need data omitted Testimonials How presenter benefited

43. Conclusion

44. Assumptions Hidden/understated Taken for granted Influential in determining the conclusion Necessary if reasoning is to make sense Potentially deceptive

45. Chapter One Theory + Knowledge = reasoning

46. Chapter two Combining Words Relationships between words Theory Knowledge Discipline Phenomena

47. Ideas Concepts Propositions Hypothesis Assumptions research

48. Facts Principles Law Models Established theory Speculative theory

49. Function of knowledge Provision of typology Structural framework Internal consistency Logical progression

50. Provision of Application process Usual order Identify Relate Understand Explain Predict influence

51. Answer Questions Identify concepts and existence of relationships to solve problems Determine relevant concepts Understand – grasp significance

52. Significance Explain Predict Influence Control Stimulate new theory

53. Nursing Theory Development Different words No connection to existing Theory is future Check language – clear Must make flexible

54. Nursing research philosophies Modernism Object Deductive Post modernism Human nature Stories experiences

55. Research types Quantitative Use numerical No researcher influence Decrease bias Use of statistics Descriptive Correlation experimental

56. Qualitative Systematic Life experience Inductive reasoning Researchers interpretation Grounded Historical philosophical

57. Reasoning Cognitive Intellectual Critical thinking

58. Reasoning Deductive Accept as true Large to small Inductive Begin with observation’ Lead to development of larger concepts Abductive Conceptual leap

59. Influence reasoning Operational definitions Variables assumptions

60. Reasoning in Nursing Knowledge Skills Values Meanings Experience caring

61. Theories Grand system (GST) Whole greater than parts Has subsystems Organized toward a goal

62. Open system (OST) Interactions between systems Interactions between environment Exchange of energy, influence, information and matter

63. Basic concepts Wholeness Hierarchy Teleology Interaction Entropy Environment Interdisciplinary influence Significance of reasoning

64. General/open systems theories Stress adaptations Generalized response to stress Physiological/psychological Pleasure/bad

65. Maslow Physiology Safety/security need Love/belonging Esteem Self-actualization

66. Erickson Personality development 8 stages of life cycles Developmental tasks

67. Communication Source Encoder-sender Message Channel or method of sending receiver

68. Communication models Shannon-Weaver Added concept of noise Leary Model Dominate/submissive Love/hate Berlo Source – message- channel - receiver

69. Health communication model Relationships Transactions contexts

70. Change theory Planned Haphazard Calm Chaotic

71. Change theory Planned Empirical-rational Normative-reeducative Power-coercive Lewins Force Field Unfreezing Moving refreezing

72. Nursing Theory Influences Regulation of education/practice Federal funds Browns – “Nursing for the future” Scholarly journals

73. Nursing theory 1850 - 1960 Nightingale Henderson Peplau Johnson

74. Nursing Theory 1960’s Scholarly advances Schlotfeldt Ellis Theory development Orlando Lewis

75. 1970’s Scholarly advances Doctoral programs Conceptual frameworks Rogers Roy Orem King Neumann/Newman

76. 1980’s Scholarly advances Doctoral programs Scholarly journals Theory Parse Leninger Watson Benner and Wrubel

77. Criterion based critique model Model Three phrases Eight concepts Three sections

78. Concepts Meaning of theory Boundaries Language Major concepts Propositions Theoretical knowledge Theory influence practice

79. Phrase one – intent Criterion one Meaning Intent of theory Application Primary/secondary source Title Judgment

80. #2 Boundaries Interpretation Setting to use in Setting developed in Recipients of care groups Age related Aggregates Health/wellness continuum Acuity of care

81. Role of nurse Caregiver Care manager Educator Leader Advocate Scientist artist

82. #3 language Interpretation Clear Consistent helpful to nursing Application Ability to understand Judgment Allow for expansion

83. # 4 Major Concepts Interpretation Accepted Concepts Unique to discipline Definition Concepts clearly presented Terms are vague

84. # 4 con’t Application Primary/secondary source Do they agree Select at least two to define

85. # 5 propositions Interpretation Exciting Stimulated growth and questions Judgment Will it stimulate further growth and questions

86. # 6 Related to Nursing Interpretation Propositions – identify relationships and direction Derived from observations Two types Cause/effect Coexist Application

87. # 7 Explain/Predict phenomena Interpretation Connection between theory and practice Evidence Replicate Judgment Own example

88. # 8 Influence nursing practice Interpretation Use of critical thinking WILL impact nursing Changes in patient care Application Your practice Why do you do what you do

89. Advanced theory analysis models Barnum Internal criticism External criticism Strengths/limitations Evaluations Fawcett Analysis evaluation

90. Lorraine Walker and Kay Avant Systematic examination Meaning Logic Usefulness Generality Simplicity testability

91. Afaf Melesi Comprehensive Analytic evaluation

92. Skills needed Observation Purposeful Intuition Questioning Compare/contrast

93. 1990’s Scholarly advances Research center Research priorities Theories Nothing new