Unit 9: Motivation and Emotion

1. Unit 9: Motivation and Emotion

2. Motivation What are some things you are “motivated” to do??

3. What is motivation? • Fueled by a motive, which is: • A specific need or desire that prompts goal-directed behavior • Primary: Hunger, Thirst, Sex • Secondary: • Stimulus (Contact, Comfort, Exploration) • Social (Aggression, Achievement, Motivation)

4. Where do “motives” come from? • Instincts • Inborn, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic of an entire species and unlearned • Human behavior is not easily explained by instincts because much what we do is learned and flexible (we aren’t JUST governed by instincts) • Human behavior is directed by both physiological needs (instincts: to eat) by psychological wants (that ice cream looks delicious but I’m not hungry)

5. Where do “motives” come from? • Drives • A state of tension or arousal caused by bodily needs • Drive Reduction Theory states that motivated behavior is an attempt to reduce a drive and return the body to homeostasis • Sequence of events: • lack of homeostasis (I’m “empty”) • Need (I need food) • Drive (Tension caused by “hungry”) • Motivation to act (I’m going to eat) • Homeostasis • Primary drive: Unlearned drive, such as hunger, based on a physiological state – Similar to instincts • Secondary drive: Learned drive, such as ambition

6. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives • Physiological needs (Primary) • Safety needs • Belongingness needs (Affiliation) • Esteem needs • Self-actualization needs (Achievement) _______________________ • Prompt goal-directed behavior. • Can you engaged in goal-direct self-actualization needs without fulfilling physiological needs? • Keep this hierarchy in mind as we progress through the motives.

7. The Primary Drives 1. Hunger 2. Thirst 3. Sex

8. 1. HungerWhy do we eat?When do we eat?How much do we eat?

9. Biological Factors - Neurological My PVN said to do it • Hunger appears to be regulated by regions in the hypothalamus • Lateral hypothalamus (LH) acts as a hunger center, triggering the onset of eating • Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) acts as a satiety center, stopping eating behavior • Paraventricular nucleus(PVN) influences the drive to eat specific foods (i.e. craving chocolate)

10. Consider our friend Mickey: • With damage to the __________, Mickey would turn away from cheese because he’d never be hungry. • With damage to the ________, Mickey would never feel full and would eat to his death!

11. Biological Factors – Chemical • Changes in blood glucose level, fats, carbohydrates, and insulin signal need for food • Partly regulated by what you eat • Protein- longer satiety; Sugar spikes (candy) results in drops that can later increase “hunger” • Hormones • Ghrelin turns on hunger; Leptinturns it off • Triggered by food intake; Natural levels affect sensitivity to impact of eating • Cholecystokinin (released by intestine) signals brain about satiety • takes 20-30 minutes! EAT SLOWLY!

12. Biological Factors - Genetics • OB-1/Chromosome 15 • 15th chromosome may carry a gene that predisposes some people to obesity • Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) • How quickly you burn calories may be genetically influenced • Set Point Theory • Body has a “set” weight it wants to be. • Body has a set number of fat cells which shrink with weight loss and enlarge with weight gain, but the number does not change. • Efforts to go below this are seen by body as a threat, and body will compensate by slowing metabolic rate

13. Psychological Factors • Perceived portion size • Are there “cues” to stop (bottom of the bag, artificial “divider”)? • Perception of others • What will my eating habits say about me? • Perception of time • Is it “lunch time”? • When did I last eat?

14. Socio-Cultural Factors • Culture also influences what we choose to eat and how much we consume • Social facilitation – we eat when others are eating • Our culture’s emphasis on food and drink? • Unit bias – what is a “serving size?” • Heart Attack Grill • Society’s definition of “attractive”? • Society’s priorities? • Resistance to caloric content information • Resistance to portion regulation • Where else do we get hints about what a society values? (or doesn’t?)

15. U.S. Subcultures and Consumption • What makes certain states and countries healthier? • Well being- Hawaii first, WVA last • Obesity- Colorado lowest, WVA highest

16. Obesity • Considered by U.S. Surgeon General to be the most pressing health problem today • An estimated 36% of Americans are obese • 15-25% of children and adolescents • 2/3 people are overweight • Obesity can lead to increased risk for • Hypertension • Cardiovascular disease • Diabetes • Sleep apnea • Tendency may be inherited (OB-1)

17. A Culture of Extremes?The Other End of the Spectrum • Anorexia nervosa • Intense fear of weight gain • Distorted body image • Refusal to maintain minimal normal body weight • Absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles (for women) • About 1% of adolescents afflicted • Approximately 90% of those are white upper- and middle-class females

18. Karen Carpenter (1950-1983)Gaga, Mary-Kate, Victoria Beckham

19. Eating Disorders (cont.) • Bulimia nervosa • Recurrent episodes of binge eating • Recurrent behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as self-induced vomiting • Behaviors must occur at least twice a week for three months • Body shape and weight overly influence self-image • Symptoms occur independent of anorexia • About 1-2% of female adolescents afflicted • Dying to be Thin Clip (“Ana” and “Mia”) • Binge Eating Disorder – binging without purging

20. Summary of Hunger Motivation

21. 2. Thirst • Why do we drink? • What does “thirst” mean? • Do we drink simply to rehydrate fluids?

22. Thirst in a Nutshell • Both internal and external cues can trigger the thirst drive • Internal cues include level of fluids inside body cells and amount of fluids outside body cells • If you are “thirsty”, you are already dehydrated • External cues can include advertisements and weather conditions • Perception of liquid as less caloric than food? • Snacking: Drinking vs. eating

23. 3. Sexual Motivation • What biological factors govern sexual behavior? • Is there a difference between males and females? • What determines sexual orientation?

24. Biological Factors • Hypothalamus controls the release of luteinizing hormone from the pituitary gland, which in turn controls the release of androgens and estrogens. • Testosterone • Important in both men and women in early development • Men and women seem to need some to be interested in sex, but as long as it is there its role in regulating sexual activity is minimal • Estrogens • Female hormones that peak during ovulation • Interestingly, when charting sexual activity, women are more receptive to sex during ovulation

25. Human Pheromones? • The psychological world is currently researching the effects of pheromones on humans • Results are mixed • May influence mood, but not signal change in mood (i.e. all of the sudden feeling sexually attracted) • Context has an impact • That’s enough evidence for perfume companies

26. We are Not Just Animals: The Psychology of Sex • Human sexual motivation is much more dependent on experience and learning than on biology • There are many reasons why people have sex • External Stimuli • Both men and women tend to become aroused when exposed to sexually explicit material • Repeated exposure to the same stimuli lessens arousal over time (cheating????) • Imagined Stimuli • Sexual arousal while dreaming in both sexes • Sexual fantasies are prevalent, but may not be indicative of desires in real life • Ugly Thoughts’ Defense Fails as Officer Is Convicted in Cannibal Plot

27. The Psychology of Sex: The First Study • The Kinsey Reports • Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) • Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) • Kinsey Scale and human sexuality (0 to 6 the “X” was added later for asexual) • Controversial methods? • Prison population • Male prostitutes • 10% ??

28. The Motivation Behind Sexual Behavior • Biological influences: • sexual maturity • sex hormones • sexual orientation • Psychological influences: • exposure to stimulating • conditions • sexual fantasies Sexual motivation • Social-cultural influences: • family and society values • religious and personal values • cultural expectations • media

29. Orgasm Resolution Difference between Men and Women? Physical Human Sexual Response Cycle(Masters and Johnson, 1966) • Excitement • Plateau

30. Difference between Men and Women?Psychological • We already know that men and women have different response cycles (Masters and Johnson) • How do men and women differ in sexual activity? • Article: Does Sexuality Differ for Men and Women? • Age and sex • Dr. Oz on the Health Benefits

31. Adolescent Sexuality • Teen Pregnancy • US has a relatively high rate of teen pregnancy and abortion • Some explanations include a lack of knowledge about sex and birth control, substance use, and lack of media reinforcement of protected sex • Sexually Transmitted Infections/STDs • For reasons listed above, STIs are also prevalent amongst young people (2/3 of all new infections occur in population under 25) • Many people do not know the risks of certain sexual practices and do not think about the number of partners their partner has had

32. Sexual Orientation • Refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual interest • Heterosexual • Sexual attraction to opposite sex • Homosexual • Sexual attraction to same sex • Bisexual • Sexual attraction to both sexes • Approximately 3-4% of men and 1-2% of women are gay/lesbian. • Sexuality is enduring over time and cannot be “changed” • Women’s sexuality seems to be more “fluid” than men’s (“erotic plasticity”) • Nature and nurture explain human sexuality

33. Sexual Orientation

35. Secondary Drives: Stimulus Motives • Stimulus motives push us to investigate or to change our environment • Example stimulus motives include: • Exploration and curiosity • E.g. Where does that path lead? How does the internet work? • Why? An emotion? An acceptable expression of sex drive? Part of the drive to find the meaning of life? • Manipulation and contact • E.g. DO NOT TOUCH signs – why are they necessary? • The need to touch, handle, or play with objects to feel satisfied. • How important is this to our development?

36. Harlow’s Monkeys • Harry Harlow (1958) wanted to find out why infant monkeys bonded with their mother. • Was the bond driven by a need for food (nursing) or something else? • Harlow’s experiment • Impact of denying infant monkeys physical comfort from their mother • Illustrates contact motive • Consequence of deprivation of social contact? (i.e. Orphanages)

37. Other Motives: Social Motives • Social motives are those which involve how we are driven to relate to others. They include the following: • Aggression • Achievement • Affiliation

38. Social Motives: Aggression • Intent is a key element of aggression – behavior is aimed at DOING HARM to others • Why are we aggressive? • Aggressive behavior may be innate, although learning clearly plays a role • Frustration-Aggression Theory? • Social Learning? • Aggression and culture • Collectivist cultures are less aggressive than individualistic cultures • Crime in the US? • Gender and aggression • Males are more physically aggressive • Nature…or nurture?

39. Social Motives: Achievement • Motivation to excel at a task • Desire is for achievement for its own sake • Work and Family Orientation Scale (WOFO) • Work orientation, mastery, competitiveness • Highest GPA – high mastery and work orientation, lower competitiveness – WHY?

40. What do incentives do to our behaviors? • External stimuli that prompt goal-directed behavior • We are often unaware of the incentive • Examples • Aroma of food may cause us to eat even when not hungry • Advertisements can lead us to buy a product • Return to classical conditioning??

41. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation • Intrinsic motivation • Motivation for a behavior is the behavior itself • Children playing is an example • Extrinsic motivation • Behavior is performed in order to obtain a reward (incentive) or to avoid punishment • A bonus program is an example • Dangers of providing extrinsic motivation for intrinsically motivated activities? • Overjustification • Dan Pink on Motivation (Ted Talks)

42. Social Motives: Affiliation • Motivation to be with others • Rats, monkeys and humans in stressful situations all feel a reduction in anxiety and fear when in the presence of another member of their species • Evolutionary value? Learned behavior?

43. Emotions • Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies behavior

44. Defining Emotion • Emotion includes the following: • A subjective conscious experience or cognitive component • Bodily or physiological arousal • Overt or behavioral expressions • Emotional reactions are linked with the Autonomic Nervous System • Sympathetic/parasympathetic NS • Autonomic responses accompanying emotion are controlled by the brain

45. Measuring Emotional Responses • Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) • GSR measures increased electrical conductivity of skin that occurs when sweat glands increase activity • GSR used to measure autonomic arousal and therefore emotional reactions • Polygraph/Lie Detector • Assumes there is a link between lying and emotions • Measures respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and GSR • Does not detect lies, but rather nervousness • Only accurate about 2/3 of the time – some people do not become nervous when they lie!

46. Basic Emotions • Plutchik proposed that there are eight basic emotions • Fear • Surprise • Sadness • Disgust • Anger • Anticipation • Joy • Acceptance • Other (secondary) emotions are the composites of primary emotions • Surprise + Sadness = Disappointment • Fear + Acceptance = Submission

47. Plutchik’s Basic Emotions

48. Plutchik

49. Basic Emotions • Some have criticized Plutchik’s model as applying only to English-speakers • Other cultures have more socially “helpful” emotions, i.e. more that describe empathy • Revised model of basic emotions includes: • Happiness • Surprise • Sadness • Fear • Disgust • Anger

50. Theories of Emotion • James-Lange theory • Environmental stimuli bring on physiological changes that we interpret as emotions • EXAMPLE: You are walking down a dark alley late at night.  You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens.  You notice these physiological changes and interpret them as your body's preparation for a fearful situation.  You then experience fear.