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Livestock Wastes:

Antimicrobials use in intensive farming of animals and fish. Livestock Wastes:. Sandra Cointreau Solid Waste Management Advisor The World Bank February 2008.

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Livestock Wastes:

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  1. Antimicrobials use in intensive farming of animals and fish Livestock Wastes: Sandra Cointreau Solid Waste Management Advisor The World Bank February 2008

  2. Humankind has not woven the web of life.We are but one thread within it.Whatever we do to the web, we do to ourselves.All things are bound together.All things connect. Chief Seattle, 1854 Suquamish and Duamish Native American Tribes

  3. Populations: 2000 -> 2030 • High Income ($34,500/cap/yr) • People 1.2 BB -> 1.3 BB* • Cattle, Pigs, Sheep, Goats 4.0 BB -> 5.2 BB** • Poultry 15.0 BB -> 24.8 BB** • Low and Middle Income ($583 and $2,833/cap/yr) • People 4.9 BB -> 7.1 BB* • Cattle, Pigs, Sheep, Goats 3.0 BB -> 4.2 BB** • Poultry 11.0 BB -> 19.2 BB** *UN Dept. of Economics and Social Affairs, World Population to 2300 **Henning Steinfeld, FAO, The Livestock Revolution – A Global Veterinary Mission, 2004

  4. Global Ratio of People to Livestock Year 2000 • 1 person to 5.4 livestock Year 2030 • 1 person to 6.4 livestock

  5. Animal Production Growth • Meat production growth in developing countries is 4 times growth in high income countries. • By 2020, an estimated 63% of meat and 50% of milk production will be in developing countries. • China is the largest meat producer in the world…74 MM tonnes in 2004. World Bank, Managing the Livestock Revolution, 2005

  6. Global Shift to Industrialized (landless) Livestock Production • Industrialized livestock production is growing 6 times faster than pastoral production. • Industrialized poultry production growing by ~ 80% from 2001-2020. • Industrialized pork and ruminate production growing by ~ 50% from 2001-2020. World Bank, Managing the Livestock Revolution, 2005

  7. What’s in Excreta from Intensive Livestock Farms? • Pathogens, including antibiotic-resistant pathogens.*,** • Antimicrobials used for growth promotion and disease prevention.*** • Synthetic hormones used for growth promotion and reproduction control. • Natural hormones. *Hutchison, M.L., et al. Levels of Zoonotic Agents in British Livestock Manures. 2004. **Tueber, M. Veterinary Use and Antibiotic Resistance. 2001. **Includes: doxycycline, bacitracin, avoparcin, tetracyclines, penicillin, virginiamycin, tylosin, erythromycin, lincomycin, flavophospholipol, monensin, carbadox, spiramycin, tiamulin, salinomycin,sulfamethizole, roxarsone (arsenic based)

  8. Zoonoses – A global threat • 60% of all 1,415 known infectious diseases can infect both animals and humans (i.e., zoonotic). • 75% of all emerging human diseases in the past 15 years are zoonotic. • Contact with excreta and carcasses of infected animals are priority means of transmission for many zoonotic diseases. • Farm-based livestock wastes (in over 30% of wastes) carry zoonotic pathogens* • Livestock wastes from livestock under stress (during transport and at slaughtering plants) shows higher shedding of zoonotic pathogens (over 80% of wastes)* Hutchison, ML, et.al., Levels of Zoonotic Agents in British Livestock Manures, 2004

  9. Animal <->Human Zoonotic Diseases – Animal to Human SARS, Avian Influenza, Swine Influenza, Ebola, West Nile Virus, Monkey Pox, Mad Cow, Lyme, Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, Rabies, Tuberculosis, Rift Valley Fever, HIV, Shigellosis, Salmonellosis, Campylobacteriosis, Toxoplasmosis, Brucellosis, Hanta Virus, Leptospirosis, Nipah Virus, Rabies, Ringworm, Yellow Fever, Bubonic Plague, Anthrax, Glanders Anthropozoonotic – Human to Animal Human Herpes virus, Tuberculosis, Measles

  10. Antimicrobials used as Growth Promoters • Antimicrobials, when used in low subtherapeutic doses in feed and water, are called “growth promoters”. The are used by industry to: • Reduce subclinical populations of pathogenic microorganisms in gut mass, lessening metabolic drain. • Prevent irritation to the intestinal lining. • Increase food passage through gut, allowing increased daily gain (4-16%)and feed utilization (2-7%)*. *Hardy, B., Animal Biotechnology, Vol 13, No 1, 2002.

  11. Growing Antimicrobial Use in Livestock • WHO estimates half of total amount of antimicrobials produced globally are used in food animals. • In US, 70-80% of all antimicrobials sold are for livestock and 85% of livestock antimicrobial use is for non-therapeutic feed addition. • Arsenic-based antimicrobials are extensively used in poultry and swine factory farming worldwide (over 70% of US poultry fed arsenic-based antimicrobials daily).

  12. Antimicrobials in Livestock Feed • Studies show that up to 75% of antibiotics pass through unaltered in feces.* • Routine use in livestock feed increases antibiotic resistant pathogens being excreted by livestock.** • Antibiotic resistant pathogens in excreta become available in the environment to wildlife and grazing livestock, and can contaminate crops. • Many pathogens have long survival after excretion, e.g., Salmonella bacteria and High Path Avian Influenza virus can survive for months after excretion. *J.C. Chee-Sanford, et.al, Occurrence and Diversity of Tetracycline Resistant Genes in Lagoons and Groundwater Underlying Two Swine Production Facilities, 2001 **Tueber, M Veterinary Use and Antibiotic Resistance, Swiss Laboratory of Food Microbiology, 2001

  13. Antibiotic Resistant Pathogens • Studies show there is horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic resistant genes in farm animal colons and there is stable maintenance of resistance transferred genes. (e.g., tetracycline, erythromycin, ampicillin, vancomycin, clindamycine resistance common)*, ** • Studies show that antibiotic resistance genes in animals and humans contain identical elements, enabling spread from animal microflora to human microflora through the fecal-oral route.** *N.B. Shoemaker, et.al. Evidence for Extensive Resistance Gene Transfer, 2000. ** Tueber, M Veterinary Use and Antibiotic Resistance, Swiss Laboratory of Food Microbiology, 2001

  14. Examples of Antibiotic Resistance • One out of every three cases of human infection by Salmonella is resistant to antibiotics. • Nearly all strains of Staphylococcus infection in the US are now resistant to penicillin. • The US CDC states that more than 2 MM patients get infections in the hospital, and that more than 70% of bacteria causing hospital-acquired infections are resistant to at least one antibiotic commonly used to treat them.

  15. Bioaerosol risks • Studies of bioaerosols inside intensive pig farms have shown more than 90% had multi-drug resistance.*,** • Antibiotic resistance bacteria have been recovered 150 meters downwind from intensive pig farms.** • Swine workers and veterinarians have elevated carriage of MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphyloccoccus aureus).*, *** *A.Chapin, et.al, Airborne Multidrug-Resistance Bacteria Isolated from Swine CAFO, 2005. **S.G. Gibbs, et.al. Isolation of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Downwind of Swine CAFO, 2006 *** Wulf, M, et.al. MRSA in Veterinary Doctors and Students in Netherlands, 2006

  16. Waste Treatment and Antimicrobials • Antimicrobials resist biological decomposition waste treatment. Reports include: • Anaerobic digestion destroyed only 59% of oxytetracycline in manures in 64 days. Various studies showed methane production was reduced from 20-80% when manures contain antibiotics, depending on the concentration of antibiotics in the manures. ** However, composting destroyed 95% of oxytetracyline in manures within first week. Also, levels of oxytetracycline resistant bacteria were 10-fold lower. **** • Antibiotics found intact and reported in sewage sludge were ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, and triclosan.*** *J.Fick, et.al., Antivial Osetimiver is not Removed or Degraded in Normal Sewage Treatment, 2007 **O.A. Arikan, et.al., Fate and Effect of Oxytetracycline during Anaerobic Digestion of Manure from Therapeutically Treated Calves., 2006 ***E.Z.Harrison, et.al., Organic Chemicals in Sewage Sludges, 2006 ****O.A. Arikan, et.al, Composting Rapidly Reduces Levels of Extractable Oxytetracycline in Manure from Therapeutically Treated Beef Calves, 2005.

  17. Bans on Antimicrobial Use • EU banned 5 antibiotics from in-feed livestock use (i.e., zinc bacitracin, avoparicin, spiramycin, tylosin phosphate, virginiamycin) in 1999. • Wider bans on antimicrobials from in-feed livestock use have been implemented in Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands and Switzerland. • US banned fluoroquinolones from any livestock use in 2005. • EU and New Zealand banned arsenicals from in-feed livestock use.

  18. Danish Monitoring • Since banning antimicrobials as feed additives for growth promotion, Danish monitoring has shown*: • The prevalence of resistant zoonotic pathogens dropped significantly. • Zoonotic pathogen isolates from Danish pork and poultry less resistant to antibiotics than isolates from imported pork and poultry. • Zoonotic pathogen isolates from human infections acquired domestically were less resistant than isolates from infections acquired abroad. *DANMAP, 2005

  19. Arsenicals in the Environment • One group of antimicrobials used for growth promotion contains organic arsenic compounds. • Up to 90% of the arsenic fed to livestock is excreted, some converted from organic to toxic forms. • Up to 70-90% of arsenic in poultry litter was found to be readily soluble in water.* • Arsenic feed additives readily degrade to toxic forms in anaerobic/reducing settings within the environment. • Burning of animal wastes releases arsenic stack gas emissions. *B.P.Jackson, et.al., Fate of Arsenic Compounds in Poultry Litter upon Land Application, 2006 D. Rutherfold, et.al., Environmental Fate of Roxarsone in Poultry Litter, 2003

  20. Arsenic in Manure and Litter • Reported levels in US poultry manure and litter were up to 32 mg/kg arsenic*, while average US sewage sludge is only 10 mg/kg.**** • Reported levels in US pelletalized poultry litter sold as fertilizer up to 39 mg/kg arsenic.** • Reported levels in Chinese swine manure were up to 119 mg/kg.*** *B.K.Anderson, et.al., Effect of Dietary 3-Nitro-4-Hydroxyphenylarsonic Acid on Total Broiler Excreta and Broiler Litter, 2003. **K.E.Nachman, et.al., Arsenic: A Roadblock to Potential Animal Waste Management Solutions, 2005. ***Y-X.Li, et.all, Emissions of Additive Arsenic in Beijing Pig Feeds and the Residues in Pig Manure, 2005. ****Harrison, E.Z., et.al., Land Application of Sewage Sludges: an Appraisal of the US Regulations, 1999

  21. Are Arsenic Regs Adequate? • Grazing cattle can ingest up to 18% of their dry matter intake as soil, and sheep ingest up to 30%.* • Manure applications can result in soil accumulations of arsenic – but are not regulated. • US EPA Part 503 standard allows 41 mg/kg of arsenic in sewage sludge applied to land.* • New York soil cleanup goal is 7.5 mg/kg.** • Florida residential soil limit is 2.1 mg/kg.** • Colorado and Illinois residential soil limit is 0.4 mg/kg.** *E.Z. Harrison, et.al., Land Application of Sewage Sludges: an Appraisal of US Regs, 1999 **T. Townsend, et.al, unpublished notes on Arsenic soil limits, 2007

  22. Antimicrobials in Aquaculture • Non-therapeutic use of antimicrobials are used to increase fish yields (e.g., trout, salmon, catfish).* • Nearly 170 kg/hectare of antibiotics are applied to salmon aquaculture in the U.S.** • Study showed that over 70% of wild fish in close proximity to aquaculture contained quinolone residues.** *Including: oxytetracycline, trimethoprim, sufamerazine, sulfadimethozine, formalin, and parasides for external fungi and protozoa. *C. Benbrook, Antibiotic Drug Use in US Aquaculture, 2002 **P.H. Serrano, Responsible Use of Antibiotics in Aquaculture, FAO, 2005

  23. Antimicrobial Stability in Marine Aquatic Sediments • Norwegian studies showed: • Large portion of antimicrobials used in marine aquaculture reached sediments below sea cages and persisted for several months. • Antimicrobial resistance developed in sediment bacteria. • In laboratory studies designed to exclude outwash, over six months, there was no significant reduction in the concentration or antibacterial activity of flumequine, oxolinic acid, and sulfadiazine. Oxytetracycline persisted, but lost antimicrobial activity after a month. * O.B. Samuelsen, et.al. Stability of Antimicrobail Agents in an Artificial Marine Aquaculture Sediment studied under laboratory conditions, 1994

  24. Antibiotic Resistance from Aquaculture • Viet Nam study of bacteria from 3 catfish ponds showed antibiotic resistance rates were ampicillin (69%), oxytetracycline (61%), trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole (61%), nalidixic acid (51%), nitrofurantoin (37%) and chloramphenicol (33%). • Danish study showed a single trout pond treatment with oxolinic acid lead to antibiotic resistance in isolates from bacteria in the pond (33-54%) and the downgradient stream (21-55%).** • South African fish pond isolates had high levels of resistance to tetracycline (78%), amoxicillin (89%) and augmentin (86%).*** *S. Sarter, et.al, Antibiotic Resistance in Gram-negative Bacteria Isolated from Farmed Catfish, 2006 **L. Guardabassi, et.al. Increase in the Prevalence of Oxolinic Acid Resistant Ancinetobacter spp.Observed in a Stream Receiving the Effluent from a Freshwater Trout Farm Following the Treatment with Oxolic Acid-Medicated Feed, 2000 ***L. Jacobs, et.al. Characterization of Integrons and Tetracycline Resistance Determinants in Aeromonas spp. Isolated from South African Aquaculture Systems, 2006

  25. What can we do? • Global incentives for farm-to-Fork tracking of livestock. • Require disclosure on feed/water additives by animal and aquaculture operations and feed manufacturers. • Research on persistence of antimicrobials and antibiotic-resistant micro-organisms in waste treatment and in aquatic and soil environments.

  26. What can we do? • Ban in-feed livestock use of arsenicals, as arsenic is a persistent and cumulative priority pollutant that is highly mobile and a proven carcinogenic in chronic low doses. • Ban priority routine in-feed livestock use of antibiotics that are important for human therapy, and require veterinary prescription for therapy use, to control the global surge in antibiotic resistant pathogens. • Clarify regulations on organic crop and livestock production to ban the use of manures from intensive livestock facilities, as recommended by FAO.

  27. What can we do? • Require livestock wastes from intensive farms to meet the same arsenic and heavy metals criteria as used for solid waste compost or sewage sludge, or residential soil limits if bagged and sold on the open market for home gardening use. • Require livestock wastes from intensive farms to be monitored for antibiotics and antibiotic resistant pathogens and develop the framework for new land application regulatory standards.

  28. What can we do? • Develop economic instruments and global trade labeling requirements for livestock products, and harmonize organic livestock production regulations. • Address market pricing policies for feed, energy, water, and other services that favor landless factory farming. • Reduce feed subsidies that favor landless intensive farms over land-based pastoral farms.

  29. Humankind has not woven the web of life.We are but one thread within it.Whatever we do to the web, we do to ourselves.All things are bound together.All things connect. Chief Seattle, 1854 Suquamish and Duamish Native American Tribes

  30. Links for Information http://www.worldbank.org/solidwaste (for World Bank solid waste activities) http://carbonfinance.org (for World Bank carbon finance activities) http://cdm.unfcc.int (for UN Framework on Climate Change Clean Development Mechanism activiies) http://go.worldbank.org/FYZR5S4CX0(for World Bank solid waste activities) http://www.who.int (for World Heath Organization) http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance (for US Center for Disease Control) http://www.fao.org (for UN Food and Agriculture Organization) http://www.oie.org (for International Veterinary Disease Organization) Sandra Cointreau scointreau@worldbank.org

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