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Understanding Growth and Development Theories in Communication

This chapter explores various growth and development theories, such as Piaget's cognitive development theory and Freud's psychoanalytic development theory. Understanding these theories can provide insights into patients' experiences and aid effective communication.

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Understanding Growth and Development Theories in Communication

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  1. Chapter 3 Communication Across the Lifespan

  2. Growth and Development Theories • Factors that affect growth and development: • Biological: Inherited traits such as eye an hair color • Social: Friends, religion, and culture • Psychological: Self-esteem, stress, and learning Learning Objective 3-1

  3. Growth and Development Theories • Benefits of understanding growth and development • Gives insight into patient experience • Aids communication Learning Objective 3-1

  4. Cognitive Development Learning Theory • Cognitive development: refers to ability to think and reason logically and learn new ideas Learning Objective 3-2

  5. Cognitive Development Learning Theory • Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development • Learning based on interaction with your environment • Four stages of interaction with environment • Sensorimotor activities: Zero to two years of age, interact using senses and motor skills Learning Objective 3-2

  6. Cognitive Development Learning Theory • Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development • Four stage of interaction with environment • Preoperational thought: Two to six years of age, interact using symbols, basic language, and imagination • Concrete operational thought: Seven to eleven years of age, interact using logic, reasoning, and other people’s perspectives Learning Objective 3-2

  7. Cognitive Development Learning Theory • Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (cont.) • Four stage of interaction with environment • Formal operational thought: Twelve years of age to adulthood, interact using logical and abstract thought processes Learning Objective 3-2

  8. Cognitive Development Learning Theory • Importance to health care professionals • Understanding how patients of any age interact with their environment helps you communicate with them Learning Objective 3-2

  9. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Development Theory • Personality composed of three parts: Id, ego, superego • Id: Basic animal nature at a person’s core • Dominates from birth to two years of age • Seeks pleasure • Avoids pain • Is impatient Learning Objective 3-3

  10. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Development Theory • Ego: Tries to reconcile the id’s desires with reality • Develops at age two to four • Delays pleasure-seeking until pleasure can be realistically achieved • Tolerates some pain if it will eventually result in pleasure • Is patient Learning Objective 3-3

  11. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Development Theory • Superego: represents ideal rather than real behaviors • Develops by age five • Does what is “right” over what is pleasurable • Motivated by fear of punishment or internal values • Is very patient Learning Objective 3-3

  12. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Development Theory • Psychosexual stages of development • Oral stage • Birth to 18 months • Region of focus is the mouth • Primary need is security Learning Objective 3-3

  13. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Development Theory • Psychosexual stages of development • Anal stage • 18 months to four years • Child develops control of anal sphincter • Toilet training Learning Objective 3-3

  14. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Development Theory • Psychosexual stages of development • Phallic stage • Age three to seven years old • Region of focus is genital area • Importance of gender difference increases Learning Objective 3-3

  15. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Development Theory • Psychosexual stages of development • Latency stage • Age seven years old to puberty • Sexual impulses repressed in service of learning • Children identify with parent of the same sex Learning Objective 3-3

  16. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Development Theory • Psychosexual stages of development • Genital stage • Puberty through adulthood • Sex drive reappears in the adolescent • Sexual pressures and conflicts manifest Learning Objective 3-3

  17. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Development Theory • Importance to health care • In the healthy person, id, ego, and superego achieve enough harmony to fulfill basic needs and desires • When forces conflict and harmony fails, maladjustment can result Learning Objective 3-3

  18. The Pleasure Principle • The pleasure principle • Characterizes the behavior of the id • An unconscious, essentially selfish drive to seek immediate pleasure and avoid pain Learning Objective 3-4

  19. The Reality Principle • The reality principle • Characterizes the behavior of the ego • Defers pleasure or endures pain for the sake of later gratification Learning Objective 3-4

  20. The Epigenetic Principle • Epigenetic principle • Erikson believed development follows a preset plan that requires mastering eight psychosocial crises Learning Objective 3-5

  21. Erikson’s Eight Stages • Autonomy versus shame/doubt • 18 months to four years of age • Toddlers overcome doubt and develop autonomy by exploring and manipulating their environment • When treating toddlers, provide activities to ease their fear and preserve their sense of autonomy Learning Objective 3-5

  22. Erikson’s Eight Stages • Initiative versus guilt • Three to six years of age • Initiative is a positive response to challenges • Encouraging child to seek new experiences promotes initiative • Restricting child’s learning produces guilt Learning Objective 3-5

  23. Erikson’s Eight Stages • Industry versus inferiority • Six years of age to puberty • Children begin to seek recognition for accomplishments • Praise encourages an attitude of industry; rejection produces sense of inferiority Learning Objective 3-5

  24. Erikson’s Eight Stages • Identity versus role confusion • Puberty to 18 years of age • Ego identity is knowing how you fit into society • Absent ego identity a person develops role confusion Learning Objective 3-5

  25. Erikson’s Eight Stages • Intimacy versus isolation • Young adulthood • Capacity for intimacy is the ability to be close to others and participate in society • Absent intimacy a person slips into isolation and loneliness Learning Objective 3-5

  26. Erikson’s Eight Stages • Generativity versus stagnation • Middle adulthood (the “midlife crisis”) • Generativity is concern for other generations • Absent generativity the individual becomes self-obsessed Learning Objective 3-5

  27. Erikson’s Eight Stages • Ego integrity versus despair • Late adulthood • Ego integrity is the ability to reflect on and come to terms to the life you have lived • Absent ego integrity the individual dwells on regrets and slips into despair Learning Objective 3-5

  28. Erikson’s Eight Stages • When dealing with a patient in late adulthood be alert to signs of despair, remind them of counseling resources, and notify physician if patient seems suicidal Learning Objective 3-5

  29. The Principle of Mutuality • Mutuality refers to interaction between generations • Erikson believed children influence parents’ development as much as parents influence children • “Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death”  —Erik Erikson • Educating patients about Erikson’s stages helps to increase patient self-awareness and knowledge Learning Objective 3-6

  30. Operant Conditioning • Principles of operant conditioning • As a person “operates” in his or her environment his or her behavior produces consequences that affect future behaviors Learning Objective 3-7

  31. Operant Conditioning • Principles of operant conditioning • Reinforcement is a type of consequence • Continuous reinforcement: Every time a behavior happens, it is reinforced • Intermittent reinforcement: Behavior is reinforced only at certain intervals Learning Objective 3-7

  32. Why Operant Conditioning Matters • Positive reinforcement of an action makes its repetition more likely • Example: A patient who properly takes ulcer medication before meals will experience positive effects and be more likely to continue treatment Learning Objective 3-8

  33. Different Age Groups Communicate Differently • Recognize the psychological differences between patients of various ages • Helps you choose the best way of communicating with a patient Learning Objective 3-9

  34. Growth and Development • As individuals grow and develop, their self-concept, self-image, and self-confidence change • Understanding growth stages will help you communicate effectively with patients and their families Learning Objective 3-10

  35. Holistic Healthcare Communication • Treat the whole patient, not just the condition • Requires appropriate communication strategies for patient’s of all ages Learning Objective 3-11

  36. General Principles of Patient Communication • Speak directly, giving patient full attention • Speak clearly • Verify that patient understands what you say • Be alert to verbal and nonverbal messages • Write down instructions • Communicate with age-appropriate terms Learning Objective 3-11

  37. General Guidelines for Communicating with Children • Talk at eye level • Speak gently to ease fears • Move slowly • Always tell a child when you need to touch them Learning Objective 3-12

  38. General Guidelines for Communicating with Children • Repeat and rephrase questions if child does not understand • Use toys to help break communication barrier • Allow children to cry and express emotion Learning Objective 3-12

  39. General Guidelines for Communicating with Children • Form a relationship: Offering children a book or toy will let them know you are there to help not hurt • Environment: Give children a quiet, private examination room and provide activities to keep them busy Learning Objective 3-12

  40. General Guidelines for Communicating with Children • Listen • Be patient: Do not interrupt and allow child time to answer questions completely • Watch for nonverbal clues, such as clutching a sore part of the body • If child must be still, ask caregiver if she would prefer to hold the child Learning Objective 3-12

  41. General Guidelines for Communicating with Children • Choice • Giving children choices makes them feel more in control of the situation • During injections, have children take a deep breath and blow out; variation: offer a noisemaker to blow into Learning Objective 3-12

  42. Talking with Adolescents • Be aware that adolescents may not understand: • The changes affecting their bodies • Sexual relations and reproduction • How to keep themselves healthy • Visual aids and diagrams can help educate adolescents Learning Objective 3-13

  43. Talking with Adolescents • Some adolescents may be reluctant to share private matters in front of parents • Kindly ask parent or caregiver to leave room if necessary • Explain to adolescent under what circumstances information will be shared with a parent or caregiver Learning Objective 3-13

  44. Talking with Adolescents • Choice: Provide adolescents opportunity to make choices about their health treatment • Help adolescents maintain their dignity by showing them respect • Avoid sending messages that might seem judgmental or belittling Learning Objective 3-13

  45. Talking with Adolescents • “I” messages: To keep blame and judgmental statements out of the conversation, keep the focus on you not them • Honesty: Adolescents are particularly sensitive to honesty in communication Learning Objective 3-13

  46. Communicating with Adults • Remember when communicating with adults that they face the constant stress of managing many responsibilities simultaneously Learning Objective 3-14

  47. Communicating with Adults • Individual information • Gauge how much information the patient wants • Adults know what works for them and what doesn’t • Always verify that a patient understands you Learning Objective 3-14

  48. Communicating with Adults • Delivery • Choose words you know the patient will understand—without treating the patient like a child • Always greet patients and explain any procedure before performing it Learning Objective 3-14

  49. Communicating with Adults • Explanations • Use simple words • Write down important information • Verify understanding by asking questions Learning Objective 3-14

  50. Communicating with Adults • Planning and collaboration • Sit down with patients and make sure they understand and can follow treatment plans Learning Objective 3-14

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