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Territorial North - Part B

Territorial North - Part B. GEG 2109 - 2003 A Regional Geography of Canada Chapter 10 -David Burhoe. Québec Science April 2003. Physical Determinants of Regionalism. The concept of Nordicity

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Territorial North - Part B

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  1. Territorial North - Part B GEG 2109 - 2003 A Regional Geography of Canada Chapter 10 -David Burhoe Québec Science April 2003

  2. Physical Determinants of Regionalism • The concept of Nordicity • The geographer, Louis-Edmond Hamelin (1979) developed a Scale of Nordicity (VAPO) of 10 criteria: • Latitude • Summer heat • Annual Cold • Types of Ice (Permafrost, Floating, snow-covered or Glacier) • Total Precipitation • Natural Vegetation Cover • Population • Degree of Economic Activity • Air Services • Accessibility by other than air • Ex. NO service VAPO100 • seasonal 1ce/yr80 • for 6 mos or 2 seasons 40 • year round by 2 means 0

  3. Muskeg in the Taiga- Southern Arctic

  4. Mackenzie River And Muskeg Difficulties and challenges of transportation for resource exploitation

  5. Providing infrastructure needs well above the tree-line requires considerable adaptation of southern Canadian “solutions”

  6. Key Topic - Megaprojects Northern “development” requires capital, technological know-how, incentives, and success stories. The vast Canadian Shield igneous outcrops contain valuable deposits of minerals and diamonds (1996) - ex. The Nanisivik mine (N. Baffin) and Polaris Mine (gold, lead/zinc) on Little Cornwallis Island Resource development began with the Klondike Gold rush (1896) with the myth of the Northern Eldorado This typical boom had negative impact (social & environmental) The vast Interior Plains sedimentary basins (ex. Mackenzie & Sverdrup) often contain large deposits of oil and natural gas.

  7. Megaproject Characteristics • Resources are far from world markets • Resource development depends on demand • Development potential limited by physical realities • Economy sensitive to lower world prices

  8. Faith in Mega-Projects is mixed. Some see them as the economic engine of northern development. Others see them as exploitive, creating dependencies, environmentally destructive. Arctic development is high-risk; needs BIG investments, costly technology, costly EIA’s, expertise and experience. Only big companies can undertake this in resource hinterlands. Examples: 1) The Mackenzie Valley Pipeline (1970s) was not built In 2000, Esso, Gulf, Shell and Exxon Mobil are again looking at it. 2) The Norman Wells Project (built 1982-1985) in winter mitigate imp. 3) NWT Diamond Project 1996 required draining lakes to access ore

  9. “Mega” Results • The NWT Diamond Project is a major project but has not generated sufficient economic growth. • Megaprojects focus on short-term profitability • Economic boom during construction • Few jobs for local peoples during operation phase • Without diversity, local economy dependent on boom/bust of world prices and phantom villages • Megaprojects provide “boom-and-bust” economic growth eventually leading to disappointment and loss of livelihood and lifestyle. Should not the “situation of the future phantom village be faced before putting mines into operation?” (Hamelin 1979: 220)

  10. Perspectives on Nordicity • Demographic/social evolution • Territorial Pop. 50% aboriginal but circum-polar links/development increasing. • The highest birth rates in Canada (and lowest death rates) are among the Inuit esp. Nunavut (nat. incr. North 2%, Canada 0.5%) • In isolated villages in all three territories, 90% of the population is indigenous living on local food and trapping of low “local exchange value” • The very low percentage of indigenous people who work full-time proved fallibility of employment statistics and studies. • >40% Terr. North’s pop. in 3 cities Whitehorse 20k, Yellowknife 17.3k, Iqaluit 4.2k

  11. Perspectives on Nordicity 2 • There are so many “norths” within the north • Many “visions” of the Territorial North • The “southern vision” • The North is a hinterland to be exploited for the benefit of southern Canada • The “romanticized vision” • Wilderness must never be touched • The “pessimistic vision” • The North is rife with problems (social, physical, economic, cultural, etc.) • The “developmental vision” • Minerals, natural gas, and oil can be developed sustainably and help achieve sustainable communities and lifestyles (Hamelin 1979: 6)

  12. NWT Act (1867) “white” education, administration, justice • Each of 4 territories differs administratively: • QC- 1970 Fed-Prov Agreement (QC princ. Administrator) • YK-Yukon Council would not meet NWT Council • NWT-Territorial Council elected (1966) but styled on southern model and feds have power. Northern municipal governments mimic feds ie. Power from above. Former NWT Assembly uniquely consultative & approbative (Judiciary Council met at historical site) • NU- 1999 Creation of Nunavut seeks to meet its local and territorial demands: • Construction of landing strips • Outside contractors to employ local workers • Construction of co-ops • Renovate water supply systems • Balanced education to meet local and national challenges • Raise drinking age from 19 to 21

  13. Perspectives on Nordicity

  14. NWT The Arctic relies heavily on tourism as a form of economic development that is more sustainable

  15. Cultural practices of the Inuit recognized and respected balanced relationships between the land, the sea, creatures and themselves. Development policies of the new government in Nunavut try to respect and preserve as much as possible this relationship. Anguhadluk

  16. William Noah, Iqaluit, NU The “Information Age” has renewed hope for many young Inuit of new employment opportunities

  17. The role of woman in the Inuit culture has evolved in recent years as elsewhere and she plays an important role as territorial spokesperson in land claims and in the territorial government. Changing role of women

  18. Shopping and Living in Iqaluit, the new capital of Nunavut

  19. The school programs are rich and varied and related to northern development needs.

  20. The land, the Culture, the art are all linked, are inspiring and are powerful.

  21. Territorial North’s Future (1) • Land claims agreements so far involve 75% aboriginals in north. The 1984 Inuvialuit Final Agreement IFA shifted power from Ottawa to Aboriginal organizations. Created Inuv. Regional Corp. to manage settlement & Inuv. Game Council to secure environment. It is only 20% of presettlement claims, but provides for 13 km2 surface and subsurface mining rights, and 77.7 km2 hunting, trapping, fishing rights • It set the model for four subsequent agreements. • Inuvialuit 1984 90.6k km2 • Gwich’in 1992 22k km2 • Sahtu/Métis 1993 41k km2 • Inuit (Nunavut) 1993 350k km2 • Yukon First Nations 1993 41.4k Mines of Nunavut 2002

  22. Territorial North’s Future (2) • The Canadian Arctic and the Oceans Act (2001) establishes the development of participatory environmentalresearch and management • Policy change parallels the emergence of aboriginal land claims and thegeneral political movement towards greater self-government. Increasing political power ofnorthern populations in general, and aboriginal groups in particular, and amodification of the environmental decision-making process, esp. the incorporation oflocal values, priorities, and traditional environmental knowledge in environmental researchand managementas a mechanism to implement participatory approaches through co-management

  23. Territorial North’s Future (3) • Seven areas of participatory environmental research and management may be recognized: • (1) fish and wildlife co-management; • (2) protected areas co-management; • (3) marine and coastal integrated management; • (4) ecosystem health monitoring; • (5) contaminants research; • (6) environmental assessment; and • (7) climate change research.

  24. Territorial North’s Future (4) Definitions • Pluralistic science extends the range of scientific inquiry beyond the conventional positivist, expert-knows-best science and creates space for the potential contributions of other kinds of locally generated knowledge [9]. • The term participatory is used to refer generally to the inclusion of local groups, land claimants and other stakeholders in the decisionmaking process; participatory management may involve both formal co-management agreements and informal joint management. • Co-management can be defined as ‘‘systems that enable a sharing of decision-making power, responsibility and risk between government and stakeholders, local resource users’.In the Canadian Arctic, co-management has been defined as ‘‘institutional arrangements whereby governments and Aboriginal (and sometimes other parties)enter into formal agreements specifying their respective rights, powers and obligations with reference to the management and allocation of resources in a particular area’’.

  25. Territorial North’s Future (5) Definitions • A policy paper of the Government of the Northwest Territories (the territory thatcovers part of northern Canada) defines traditional knowledge as ‘‘knowledge andvalues which have been acquired through experience, observation, from the land orfrom spiritual teachings, and handed down from one generation to another’’. • The working definition of traditional ecological knowledge, as used in this paper, is ‘‘acumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief, evolving by adaptive processesand handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about therelationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with theirenvironment’’ • 1987 Oceans Policy for Canada • November 1994, the DFO Vision for Oceans Management • BillC-26-An act Respecting the Oceans of Canada 1997 Source: F. Berkes et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 44 (2001) 451–469 453

  26. Traditional ecological knowledge is a proven science. It has allowed an Inuit population of as many as 10,000 to survive in an environment that challenges sophisticated modern science & technology. Cholesterol levels and heart disease are lowest in Canada.

  27. Tourism Potential • 6 key considerations to attracting and promoting inbound tourism: • a)      Research • b)      Product Development • c)      Infrastructure (from Geogescu) • Regional Carriers (FirstAir, Creebec, Hawkair, Bearskin) “turf” wars • Serve smaller markets • DEMAND matters: need people getting on planes 12 months a year • SIZE matters: the right aircraft for the route • Mostly prop service (some RJs) • Need to be part of larger travel product package COSTS matter: labour, fuel are biggest costs • Many small airlines supply regional charters (e.g. fly-in fishing, cargo) • GOVERNMENT matters: Government “take” can come to hundreds of millions of dollars every year; rules and regulations can hamstring business action: • MAY be allied with network carriers (AC, Jazz, Westjet) • d)      Human Resource Development • e)      Marketing • f) Visitor Information Services

  28. Tourism Expenditures by Commodity (2003) Transportation = largest part of tourist $ Total Tourism Demand: $ 52.1 Billion (2003)

  29. Northern Lights Festival, Yellowknife Queen Charlotte Is. Boat tours Pond Inlet 1960s Pond Inlet glaciers 2004

  30. Polar Bear Swimming Pangnurtung, NU Walrus Colony Resolute Bay, NU

  31. Arctic Sea ice & Glaciers

  32. Arctic Glaciers & Sea ice • 90% Newfoundland & Labrador icebergs originate from 100 Greenlandic glaciers • 40,000 medium to large sized icebergs calve annually in Greenland and about 1 to 2% (400-800) of those make it as far south as 48o north latitude (St. John's) • Rarely do icebergs last more than one year south of this point. The glacial ice that icebergs are made of may be more that 15,000 years old! • Snow accumulates over thousands of years. Successive layers compress earlier accumulations until, at depths below 60 to 70 meters, glacial ice is formed. Glaciers "flow" or "creep" outward under their own weight like a viscous fluid. • Arctic sea ice has receded by about 40 percent since 1979. By the end of this century the region could be ice free during the summer months.(Michael Oppenheimer, Princeton University NJ." National Geographic News, February 25, 2005)

  33. IPY 2007-2008 further Arctic research planned • 1950 – 1991 Soviet Union field studies in the Central Arctic Basin collected data from “drifting stations” • “North Pole 32” (2003-2004) revealed significant changes of climate in the Arctic Basin: • positive anomalies of daily mean air surface temperature and more often strong temperature and air pressure changes, • frequencies of storm winds and snow precipitation had been observed. • During ²Fram² drift in summer 1895, air temperature above freezing point only three times. • In 1950s-1980s, the mean value of days with positive temperature was 6 per year. • On “North Pole-32”, drifted northern to ”Fram” route the number of such days exceeded 26. On the same station more days with precipitation had been observed (more than 20 days each month from June to September).

  34. Acknowledgements • Images: Coppermine couple, Inuit Cultural groups of Canada, US and Greenland; whales; polynyas; tundra; taiga; Mackenzie River; Map and chart of nordicity; from Canadian Encyclopedia Deluxe Edition 1999, CD-ROM resource Collection, McClelland & Stewart Publishers • Images: Iqaluit 2002-2003; airport; throatsingers; sculptor William Noah; art of Jessie Oonark; personal collection of Maureen Flynn-Burhoe. • Cover, heart attacks/infarctus, (Catherine & Laurent Fontaine) Québec Science, Avril 2003. • Inuktitut Syllabic alphabet from Canadian Encyclopedia Deluxe Edition 1999, CD-ROM resource Collection, McClelland & Stewart Publishers, Land of the Inuit. • Concept and Scale of Nordicity: Hamelin, Louis-Edmond. 1979. Canadian Nordicity: It’s Your North, Too. Montreal: Harvest House Ltd. • Berkes, Fikret, Jack Mathias, Mina Kislalioglu, Helen Fast. 2001.Ocean & Coastal Management 44, Winnipeg, MB: Natural Resources Institute, U. Manitoba,

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