Objective 1.3: Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis.

1. Objective 1.3:Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis.

2. Research at the cognitive level • Many different methodologies are used to study cognitive science. As the field is highly interdisciplinary, research often cuts across multiple areas of study (triangulation), drawing on research methods from the biological level of analysis and the socio-cultural level of analysis. • Some methods commonly used at the CLOA are: • Experiments/Quasi-experiments • Case studies/Interviews/Focus Groups • Correlational Studies

3. Experiment Experiments: A method to investigate cause and effect, i.e. what causes certain behaviors (examples of experiments are Bartlett, Loftus and Palmer, etc. ) These should be referenced and discussed in your response. Strengths: Controlled environment offers high replicability and low chances for any errors. We are often able to isolate a specific cognitive process with research experiments.Weaknesses: Has low ecological validity since tests are done in controlled laboratory environment, not very reliable unless a large it is done on a large sample group (which, in turn, can be very costly and time consuming) For example, a person may respond a certain way because they know they are apart of an experiment.

4. Quasi Experiment • Quasi Experiments: Quasi experiments are so called because they are not classed as true experiments. • A quasi experiment is where the independent variable is not manipulated by the researcher but occurs naturally. These experiments are often called natural experiments.

5. Quasi Experiment • In a true experiment participants are allocated to the conditions of an experiment, usually through random assignment, however this is not always possible for practical or ethical reasons. • In a quasi experiment the researcher takes advantage of pre-existing conditions such as age, sex or an event that the researcher has no control over such as a participants’ occupation.

6. Quasi Experiment • Cross-cultural research and studies comparing male and females often use quasi-experimental designs. • For example: Cognitive Psychologist often study gender differences in cognitive processes. A research study can be referenced in your discussion: • http://memlab0.eng.yale.edu/PDFs/2007_Bloise_Johnson_Memory.pdf

7. Quasi Experiment • Especially in social sciences, where pre-selection and randomization of groups is often difficult, they can be very useful in generating results for general cognitive trends. Such as cultural or gender differences in memory and or schemata. • Quasi-experimental design is often integrated with individual case studies; the figures and results generated often reinforce the findings in a case study, and allow some sort of statistical analysis to take place.

8. Quasi Experiment • Quasi experimental studies can be a very powerful tool, especially in situations where ‘true’ experiments are not possible. They are very good way to obtain a general overview and then follow up with a case study or quantitative experiment, to focus on the underlying reasons for the results generated.

9. Case Studies Case studies: A detailed study of a single case or group (and example of a case would be the study done on H.M. and or Genie) A specific case study should be referenced and discussed in your response. Cognitive Psychologists rely on psychobiological case studies to examine brain deficits on cognitive processes. (This is also an example of how principle two can be demonstrated in research-a specific case study should be used if you are going to mention this in your response).

10. Case Studies Strengths: Provides in insight into unusual phenomenon that occurs very rarely or unethical to replicate (e.g. Clive Wearing or Phineas Gage), findings that contradict traditional beliefs about cognitive processes can open windows for new ideas and theories, thus, stimulating new researches For example: Case studies on feral children can lead to further research on language as a cognitive adaptive process.

11. Case Studies Weaknesses: Extremely difficult to replicate (e.g. Kim Peek's study), prone to researcher bias; low in credibility and trustworthiness, however, triangulation can reduce this factor . Description of Kim Peeks study can be used to further support this statement: http://www.pleasanton.k12.ca.us/avhsweb/emersond/appsych/ch11_development/savant.pdf

12. Interviews Interviews allow for researchers to gain insight about specific mental processes (perception, memory, problem solving, etc. Semi structured: Interview with pre-set list of topics but in which “natural” conversation is attemptedStrengths: more flexibility, allows more interaction, allows exploration and identification of themes, allows gathering of idiographic data

13. Interviews Weaknesses: places limits on what is asked, time consuming, lacks reliability, difficult to generalize, researcher and subject bias. For info on cognitive interviews http://www.umsl.edu/~sauterv/analysis/interview/cognitive_int.html

14. Objective 1.4:Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis.

15. Ethical considerations related to a research study • Since cognitive studies mostly deal with humans and their way of thinking, certain code of ethics have to be followed in research in order to assure safety of the participants, their state of mind, and personal information.  • Common ethical considerations in psychological studies are informed consent, protection from harm, right to withdraw, confidentiality and privacy of the participants, and debriefing after the experiment.  

16. Ethical considerations related to a research study • As previously stated in objectives 1.2 and 1.3, these internal mental processes are investigated scientifically through experimentation, case studies, animal research, etc. • It is possible that ethical considerations affect the research in the cognitive perspective. For example by limiting the amount and the extent of experimentation done on humans and living animals.

17. How is research at the cognitive level of analysis limited and or constrained by ethical guidelines? Should studies that violate ethical considerations be considered as valid research? Brief discussion

18. Ethical considerations related to a research study • Sometimes humans cannot be studied (because of ethical guidelines concerning humans). Sometimes animals are used to examine how specific brain deficits relate to the ability to process information (because of physiological similarities between animals and humans).

19. Ethical considerations related to a research study • Since ethical guidelines are always considered while conducting research, it may limit the amount of research being obtained. • The cognitive approach is mainly focused on internal processes and it is sometimes necessary, in the name of science, to experiment with living animals and it can often cause them pain or discomfort; for example removing parts of animals brains, which some consider unethical.

20. Example of unethical animal research. • Karl Spencer Lashleypioneered the study of brain mechanisms of learning and memory. • Lashleydevoted many years to an analysis of brain mechanisms of learning, using the lesion-behavior method that he developed and elaborated from the work with Franz. • During this period, Lashley's theoretical view of learning was heavily influenced by two widely held notions: localization of function in neurology and behaviorism in psychology.

21. Example of unethical animal research. • Lashley systematically set out to find the places in the cerebral cortex where learning in an extensive series of studies culminating in his 1929 monograph. • In this research he used mazes of differing difficulty and made lesions of varying sizes in different regions of the cerebral cortex of the rat. • Often times the rats were held in poorly kept quarters are were deprived of environmental enrichment.

22. Example of unethical animal research. • The results profoundly altered Lashley's view of brain organization and had an extraordinary impact on the young field of physiological psychology: the locus of the lesion was unimportant; the size was critically important, particularly for the difficult mazes.

23. Ethical considerations related to animal research • Should we deliberately put animals in pain or discomfort for the “sake of research”? Why or why not?

24. Ethical considerations related to animal research • In this case, some say it is unethical as the animals suffer. • Since these experiments, Ethical guidelines and the Animals’ Act have gotten stronger and enforced strict rules which are against certain experiments being conducted since both animals or humans can suffer.

25. Other considerations: • The fact that ethics in humans have to always be in mind can limit the experiments that are necessary to advance in the cognitive approach. What are examples of this? • When considering research in the cognitive perspective that involves humans, the ethical guidelines have to be strongly imposed and participants have to be consented before the experiment.

26. Deception in cognitive research • As a general rule, deception is not acceptable when doing research with humans. Using deception jeopardizes the integrity of the informed consent process and can potentially harm your participants. • There are times, however, when deception is necessary for cognitive research. For example, if you want to learn about cognitive processes such as false memories, decision making, and attention; deception to some extent may be necessary. • Thus, the question arises; To what extent should we ethically allow deception in cognitive research?

27. APA Standards for Deception in research • According to the American Psychological Association, deception must be handled with a high discretion in human research. The APA states: • Psychologists do not conduct a study involving deception unless they have determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study's significant prospective scientific, educational, or applied value and that effective non-deceptive alternative procedures are not feasible. • Psychologists do not deceive prospective participants about research that is reasonably expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress. This latter principle has been debate in many cognitive studies including Elizabeth Loftus’ “Lost in a shopping mall” Study (1995)

28. Implanting False Memories • In the mid 1990s, Loftus set out to see the extent of “false memories”. She sought out to see if one could inject an entire memory into the mind of someone for something that never existed? A childhood memory, even something that was mildly traumatic? • In the lost-in-the-mall study, implantation of false memory occurred when another person, usually a family member, claimed that the incident happened. Corroboration of an event by another person can be a powerful technique for instilling a false memory. In fact, merely claiming to have seen a person do something can lead that person to make a false confession of wrongdoing.

29. Implanting False Memories • For her research study, deception was used in way that implanted a “mildly traumatic” false memory into a child. According to APA guidelines, was this justified? Why or why not? • According to Crook & Dean (1999) “There is no evidence to indicate that Loftus’ students were informed that deceiving study participants might be problematic. As Coan (1997) reported: "I hadn’t realized that deceiving participants as a part of psychological research was anything other than business as usual ... I hadn’t considered most of their concerns at all, let alone how to address them" (p. 275). • Other considerations, according to Crook & Dean, appeared to be breached in Loftus’ study: • Read more: • http://users.owt.com/crook/memory/