ENGL405: English as a Global Lingua Franca

1. ENGL405: English as a Global Lingua Franca Lecture 6:Theories and models

3. Key questions What is a global language and do we need one? Why has English rather than another language such as French or Chinese become the global lingua franca? What are the consequences of the spread of English? How do we classify the users and uses of English worldwide? What counts as English? Which model should be used for teaching and learning English as a second language? Who owns English? What does the future hold for English?

4. Today’s lecture Linguistic imperialism Models of English

5. Bolton’s categories Bolton (2004) categorises writers on English as an international language into three types: Popularisers Critical linguists Futorologists

6. Popularisers: McCrum et al. Among the popularisers are McCrum, Cran and MacNeil (1986), who wrote the BBC’s nine-part documentary series The Story of English. It was criticised in some quarters for its triumphalism, particularly its opening episode ‘An English-speaking world’, which – it was claimed – celebrated the global spread of English and its position as the world’s pre-eminent international language.

7. ‘Globish’: McCrum (2010) How the English language became the world’s language

8. Popularisers: Crystal In his book, English as a Global Language (2003), David Crystal asserts that the ‘remarkable growth’ of English can be explained by the fact that ‘it is a language which has repeatedly found itself in the right place at the right time’. This was criticised for being ‘triumphalist’ by Robert Phillipson in a review.

9. Bolton’s categories Bolton (2004) categorises writers on English as an international language into three types: Popularisers Critical linguists Futorologists

10. Viewing activity • We are going to watch an excerpt from the much-criticised first episode of TheStory of English. • What evidence can you find of the triumphal attitude which angered critics? (Handout, p.1)

11. Phillipson: Linguistic imperialism The study of linguistic imperialism focuses on how and why certain languages – and particularly English – become world languages. At the heart of his approach are arguments about political relations between the ‘core’ English-speaking countries and countries on the ‘periphery’, viz. countries where English has the status of a second or foreign language. Phillipson argues that the nature of this relationship is one of structural and systemic inequality, in which the political and economic dominance of the ‘core’ English-speaking countries is established or maintained over ‘developing’ countries.

12. Cultural imperialism Phillipson regards linguistic imperialism as a sub-category of cultural imperialism. Other sub-categories are: Media imperialism – e.g. news agencies such as CNN and BBC World. Educational imperialism – e.g. the export of Western institutional norms. Scientific imperialism – e.g. the dissemination of paradigms and methodologies from the Centre. Linguistic imperialism is closely related to media, educational and scientific imperialism.

13. Colonial and post-colonial eras Phillipson claims that in the colonial era, indigenous languages had a low status. The coloniser’s language provided access to power and resources. Although the British (unlike the French) used native languages in the early years of education, these languages were regarded as subordinate to English. Phillipson claims that even after independence the former colonial languages remain as dominant languages. This greatly benefits those who can use them, while the indigenous languages remain marginalised. In consequence of linguistic imperialism, the development of indigenous languages has been kept in check by the former colonial languages. According to Phillipson, linguistic underdevelopment occurs when languages are not used for the full range of societal functions.

14. Linguistic imperialism in the post-colonial era Whereas in the colonial era, European languages – notably English – were promoted through conquest and occupation, in the modern era powerful nations use subtler means to spread their languages. The rise of English in the post-colonial era has ‘not been left to chance’. He claims that it has been the declared policy of the British and American governments to promote English worldwide to curb the growth of competitor languages. This has been accomplished through the establishment of a professional infrastructure and cultural agencies such as the British Council. Government-sponsored language activities are intended to create dependence on the dominant language in order to advance its use in a structure of linguistic imperialism.

15. Linguicism Whereas in the past slavery and colonisation were imposed by physical violence (the stick), in the modern era physical violence has given way to psychological violence (the carrot). This phenomenon is captured through the concept of linguicism(analogous to ‘sexism’, ‘racism’, etc.). Phillipson defines as ‘ideologies, structures, and practices which are used to legitimate, effectuate, and reproduce an unequal divisionof power and resources (both material and immaterial) between groups which are defined on the basis of language’. Phillipson claims that the international role of English is being strengthened by the Western-dominated globalisation agenda, which is being implemented by transnational corporations, the World Bank, the IMF, the WTO, etc.

16. Today’s lecture Linguistic imperialism Models of English

17. The number of users of English worldwide

18. Discussion: • What are the problems with this three-way categorisation? (Handout, p.4)

19. ENL, ESL, EFL ENL is not a single variety of English There are different ‘standard’ varieties of English Difficult to classify pidgins and creoles There are significant numbers of ENL speakers in ESLandEFL settings There are significant numbers of ESL and EFL speakers in ENL settings The categories do not take account of bi- /multilingualism and code-mixing/switching Belief that native speakers have superior language skills to those who acquire English as a second language

20. Peter Strevens’ model (1980)(family tree – spread of English)

21. Tom McArthur’s (1987) circle of World English

22. Kachru’s (1985) ‘circles’ model Norm-dependent Norm-developing Norm-developing • It represents: • Types of spread (2nd, 3rd or even 4th diaspora) • Patterns of acquisition • The functional domains

23. The Outer Circle In countries such as India and Singapore, English plays an important institutionalrole (e.g. in government administration, legal system, education). acts as a lingua franca in multilingual settings, i.e. people from different language backgrounds use it for social purposes. is a vehicle for literary creativity: many major novelists writing in English are from ‘outer circle’ territories.

24. The Expanding Circle In these countries, English … plays no institutional (e.g. in government, law) or social role (e.g. as a lingua franca). is learned as a foreign language (rather than through its use as a medium of instruction) in the education system.

25. Problems with Kachru’s model Based on geography and geneticsrather than on the way speakers identify with and use English. Some English users in the Outer Circle speak it as their first language (e.g. some HK Chinese). Grey area between Outer and Expanding Circles: English is spoken more widely and proficiently in the EC Scandinavian countries than in OC India. Many World English speakers grow up bilingual or multilingual. It is difficult to describe any language in their repertoire as L1, L2, L3, etc. It is difficult to use the model to define speakers in terms of their proficiency. Some L2 speakers of English are more proficient than native speakers. The model implies that the language situation in a particular country is uniform. Some Inner Circle countries are very linguistically diverse (e.g. USA, UK).

26. Graddol’s (2006) proficiency-based model Functional nativeness?

27. Modiano’s (1999) centripetal circles • NS? NNS? • Cross-cultural communication • Strong regional accent/ dialect

28. Three-dimensional model of English use (Yano 2007: 38)

29. Discussion • Why do you think scholars have developed these and other models? Do these models serve any useful purpose? • What are the strengths and weaknesses of the model that you have chosen to discuss? (Handout, p.8)

30. Developmental cycles • Kachru (1983) Phase 1: non-recognition Phase 2: co-existence of local and imported varieties Phase 3: recognition • Moag (1992) Phase 1: transportation Phase 2: indigenization Phase 3: expansion in use Phase 4: institutionalisation [ Phase 5: decline] (experienced by some: e.g.Malaysia, the Philippines and perhaps even India )

31. Dynamic Model Schneider, E.W. (2007). Postcolonial English: Varieties around the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The evolutionary cycle of postcolonial Englishes - based on language contact between the indigenous (IDG) and settler (STL) • Foundation • Exonormative stabilisation • Nativisation (e.g. Nigeria) • Endonormative stabilisation (e.g. Singapore) • Differentiation (e.g. the US, Australia)

33. Dynamic Model- The evolutionary cycle of postcolonial Englishes • Four parameters: • Extralinguistic background (i.e. history, politics) • Identity constructions of the parties involved (i.e. history, politics) • Sociolinguistic determinants of the contact settings (i.e. conditions of language contact, language use, language attitudes) • Linguistic consequences (i.e. changes in lexis, grammar, phonology)

34. Hong Kong’s transitions • Foundation (1841-1898): minority bilingualism • Exonormative stabilisation (1898-1960s): spreading (elite) bilingualism • Nativisation (1960s-present): common bilingualism / language shift

35. Readings for assignment 3- preparation for the next seminar • Luke, K.K. and Richards, J.C. (1982). English in Hong Kong: Functions and status. English World-Wide, 3, 47-64. • Li, D. (1999). The functions and status of English in Hong Kong: A post-1997 update. English World-Wide, 20, 67-110. • Evans, S. (2010). Language in transitional Hong Kong: Perspectives from the public and private sectors. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 31(4), 347-363.