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IB Sports, exercise and health science

IB Sports, exercise and health science. Exercise Physiology. Topic 2 Exercise physiology. 2.2.1 State the composition of blood. Sub-topics. Blood is a specialised type of connective tissue. It is heavier and more viscous than water and accounts for about 8% of our total body weight.

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IB Sports, exercise and health science

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  1. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.1 State the composition of blood Sub-topics • Blood is a specialised type of connective tissue. • It is heavier and more viscous than water and accounts for about 8% of our total body weight. • Healthy adult males have around 5-6 litres of blood and females about 4-5 litres. • Its colour varies, depending upon the amount of oxygen it is carrying, from dark red (oxygen poor) to scarlet red (oxygen rich) • Browne et al 2001 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  2. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.1 State the composition of blood The components are as follows: • Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells): makes up 99% of the formed elements in blood. • Leukocytes (White Blood Cells) • Platelets (Thrombocytes) • Plasma: liquid portion of blood Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  3. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.1 State the composition of blood Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system http://www.oxfordreference.com/media/images/30325_0.jpg

  4. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.1 State the composition of blood Sub-topics Blood performs a number of specialised functions: • Transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, waste products and hormones to cells and organs around the body. • Protects us from bleeding to death, via clotting, and from disease, by destroying invasive micro-organisms and toxic substances. • Acts as a regulator of temperature, the water content in cells, and body pH. 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system Browne et al 2001

  5. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.2 Distinguish between the functions erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets Sub-topics • Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells): contain an oxygen-carrying pigment called haemoglobin, which gives blood its red colour. They live for around 120 days, and are replaced at the at the astonishing rate of 2 million per second. 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system http://www.esa.int/images/bloodcell400.jpg

  6. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.2 Distinguish between the functions erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets Sub-topics • Leukocytes (White Blood Cells): exist in our bodies to combat infection and inflammation. They do this by ingesting foreign microbes in a process called phagocytosis. • http://images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/sharemed/targets/images/pho/35a5c/35A5C297.jpg 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  7. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.2 Distinguish between the functions erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets Sub-topics • Platelets (Thrombocytes): are involved in the process of clotting and help repair slightly damaging blood vessels. 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  8. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.2 Distinguish between the functions erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets Sub-topics Complete activities pages 98 –101 of the Applied Anatomy resource book. DET PDHPE Distance Education Programme 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  9. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.3 Describe the anatomy of the heart with reference to the heart chambers, valves and major blood vessels Sub-topics • The heart is an involuntary muscle with striated muscle fibres. • The heart wall is composed of three layers and four chambers which are separated by a septum and valves. A triple layered bag called the pericardium surrounds, anchors and protects the heart. Browne et al 2001 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  10. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.3 Describe the anatomy of the heart with reference to the heart chambers, valves and major blood vessels Sub-topics • The superior structures of the heart are called the left atrium and right atrium (atrium means court or entry hall), which are separated by a thin wall. • The inferior chambers are called the left ventricle and right ventricle. Browne et.al 2001 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  11. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.3 Describe the anatomy of the heart with reference to the heart chambers, valves and major blood vessels Sub-topics http://library.thinkquest.org/25896/images/heart/structure.jpg 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  12. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.3 Describe the anatomy of the heart with reference to the heart chambers, valves and major blood vessels Sub-topics • The atria act as receiving chambers for blood returning to the heart. They are relatively small and thin walled, because they only have to pump blood the relatively small distance into the ventricles. • The ventricles are quiet large, because they are responsible for propelling blood from the heart into circulation around the body. Browne et. al 2001 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  13. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.3 Describe the anatomy of the heart with reference to the heart chambers, valves and major blood vessels • Dense connective structures called valves prevent backflow of blood into chambers by opening and shutting when the heart contracts and relaxes. • Two lie between each atria and ventricle (the atrioventricular valves: tricuspid on the right and bicuspid on the left). • Both arteries coming from the heart have a semilunar valve on them to prevent blood from flowing back into the heart (the pulmonary semilunar valve and the aortic semilunar valve). • Browne et.al2001 Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  14. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.3 Describe the anatomy of the heart with reference to the heart chambers, valves and major blood vessels http://images.main.uab.edu/healthsys/ei_0019.gif Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  15. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.3 Describe the anatomy of the heart with reference to the heart chambers, valves and major blood vessels Read pages 101-107 of the Applied Anatomy resource book. The heart has it’s own blood supply via the coronary arteries. Outline the role of the major blood vessels of pulmonary and systemic circulation: Superior and inferior vena cava, pulmonary vein, pulmonary artery, aorta. DET PDHPE Distance Education Programme Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  16. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.3 Describe the anatomy of the heart with reference to the heart chambers, valves and major blood vessels http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/images/446/circulationgeneral.gif Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  17. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of excitation in the heart muscle The heart is able beat spookily after being separated from the body of it’s owner (as seen in horror films) is not totally a product of overactive imaginations. The heart can actually continue to beat for a number of hours if supplied with appropriate nutrients and salts. This is because the heart has it’s own specialized conduction system and can beat independently of it’s nerve supply. Solomon & Davis Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  18. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of excitation in the heart muscle The sinoatrial (SA) node is a small mass of specialized muscle in the posterior wall of the right atrium. Because automatic self-excitation of the SA node initiates each heart beat, setting the basic pace for the heart rate, the SA node is known as the pace maker. The end of the fibres of the SA node fuse with surrounding atrial muscle fibres so that the contraction spreads, producing atrial contraction. Several groups of atrial muscle fibres conduct the contraction to the atrioventricular (AV) node, which spreads action potential throughout the rest of the heart via specialised muscle fibres called Purkinje fibres. These form the atrioventricular (AV) bundle OR bundle of his. Solomon & Davis Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  19. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of excitation in the heart muscle http://www.humanillnesses.com/original/images/hdc_0001_0001_0_img0092.jpg Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  20. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of excitation in the heart muscle http://img.tfd.com/dorland/thumbs/bundle_of-His.jpg Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  21. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of excitation in the heart muscle Although the heart is capable of beating independently of body control systems, in order to adapt its rate to the changing needs of the body it is carefully regulated by the nervous system. A number of other factors, including hormones, ion concentration and change in body temperature can influence heart rate. Solomon & Davis Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  22. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of excitation in the heart muscle The heart is innervated by parasympathetic nerves that slow it’s rate, and by sympathetic nerves that speed it up. Solomon & Davis Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  23. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of excitation in the heart muscle • Parasympathetic innervation originates in the cardiac centres in the medulla and passes to the heart by way of the vagus nerves. Vagus nerve fibres richly supply the SA and AV nodes. When stimulated, these parasympathetic nerves release acetylcholine, which slows the heart. Solomon & Davis Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  24. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of excitation in the heart muscle Sympathetic nerves that serve the heart originate in the upper thoracic spinal cord and reach the myocardium by way of several nerves sometimes called accelerator nerves. These nerves supply the nodes and also the muscle fibres themselves. When stimulated, they release norepinephrine or noradrenaline, which increases the heart rate as well as the strength of ventricular contraction. Solomon & Davis Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  25. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of excitation in the heart muscle • Noradrenaline is released from the adrenal medulla of the adrenal glands as a hormone into the blood, but it is also a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system and sympathetic nervous system where it is released from noradrenergic neurons during synaptic transmission, as mentioned on the previous slide. • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norepinephrine Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  26. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of excitation in the heart muscle • In addition, as a stress hormone, it affects parts of the human brain where attention and responding actions are controlled. Along with epinephrine, norepinephrine underlies the fight-or-flight response, directly increasing heart rate, triggering the release of glucose from energy stores, and increasing skeletal muscle readiness. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norepinephrine Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  27. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of excitation in the heart muscle Complete activities on pages 108-111 of the Applied Anatomy resource book. DET PDHPE Distance Education Programme Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  28. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.5 Outline the relationship between the pulmonary and systemic circulation • Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygen-depleted blood away from the heart, to the lungs, and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart. The term is contrasted with systemic circulation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  29. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.5 Outline the relationship between the pulmonary and systemic circulation • Systemic circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygenated blood away from the heart, to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. The term is contrasted with pulmonary circulation. • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemic_circulation Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  30. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.5 Outline the relationship between the pulmonary and systemic circulation http://webschoolsolutions.com/patts/systems/pul-circ.gif Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  31. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.6 Describe the relationship between heart rate, cardiac output and stroke volume at rest and during exercise • Cardiac Output = the amount of blood pumped from the heart in one minute. This measured in litres per minute. • Stroke Volume = the amount of blood pumped by each ventricle in each contraction. The average volume is is about 0.07 litres of blood per beat. • DET PDHPE Distance Education Programme Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  32. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.6 Describe the relationship between heart rate, cardiac output and stroke volume at rest and during exercise • Cardiac Output = the amount of blood pumped from the heart in one minute. This measured in litres per minute. • Stroke Volume = the amount of blood pumped by each ventricle in each contraction. The average volume is is about 0.07 litres of blood per beat. • Basal Heart Rate = when heart rate is reduced to it’s minimum. E.g. when sleeping. • DET PDHPE Distance Education Programme Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  33. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.6 Describe the relationship between heart rate, cardiac output and stroke volume at rest and during exercise • Complete activities in Applied Anatomy resource book page 111 and page 114 - 115. • DET PDHPE Distance Education Programme Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  34. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.6 Describe the relationship between heart rate, cardiac output and stroke volume at rest and during exercise • Practical Application: You will need sports kit, pen and resource book to complete these activities. Complete activities page 113 and 116 of the Applied Anatomy resource book. • DET PDHPE Distance Education Programme Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  35. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.7 Analyse cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate data for different populations at rest and during exercise. • One response to exercise of the cardiovascular system is the increase in cardiac output from around 5 litres at rest to between 20 and 30 litres during maximal exercise. The response is due to an increase in stroke volume in the rest to exercise transition, and an increase in heart rate. Sewell et.al 2005 Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  36. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.7 Analyse cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate data for different populations at rest and during exercise. • Heart rate can reach 200bpm or more in some individuals. Maximal cardiac output differs between people primarily due to differences in body size and the extent to which they might be endurance trained. Sewell et.al 2005 Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  37. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.7 Analyse cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate data for different populations at rest and during exercise. • An improvement in cardiac performance brought about by endurance training occurs as a result of changes in: • Stroke volume (increased) • Heart rate (decreased for a set workload) • Ventricular mass and volume (increased) Sewell et.al 2005 Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  38. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.7 Analyse cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate data for different populations at rest and during exercise. • Library Research: Complete a review of literature analysing cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate data for different populations. Populations to consider include males/females, trained untrained & young old. Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  39. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.8 Explain cardiovascular drift • If you begin a 90 minute steady state ride on your bicycle trainer at a controlled intensity, your heart rate may be 145 after 10 minutes. However, as you ride and check your heart rate every 10 minutes, you will notice a slight upward "drift". By 90 minutes, your heart rate may be 160. Why is this happening if intensity is held constant? There are two explanations. As you exercise, you sweat. A portion of this lost fluid volume comes from the plasma volume. This decrease in plasma volume will diminish venous return and stroke volume. Heart rate again increases to compensate and maintain constant cardiac output. Maintaining high fluid consumption before and during the ride will help to minimize this cardiovascular drift, by replacing fluid volume. • http://home.hia.no/~stephens/hrchngs.htm Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  40. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.8 Explain cardiovascular drift • There is also a second reason for the drift during an exhaustive exercise session. Your heart rate is controlled in large part by the "Relative" intensity of work by the muscles. So in a long hard ride, some of your motor units fatigue due to glycogen depletion. Your brain compensates by recruiting more motor units to perform the same absolute workload. There is a parallel increase in heart rate. Consequently, a ride that began at heart rate 150, can end up with you exhausted and at a heart rate of 175, 2 hours later, even if speed never changed! http://home.hia.no/~stephens/hrchngs.htm Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  41. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.9 Define the terms systolic and diastolic blood pressure • Read pages 117-118 and take notes defining the above terms. DET PDHPE Distance Education Programme Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  42. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.10 Analyse systolic and diastolic blood pressure data at rest and during exercise Using the data in the table provided, analyse the changes in blood pressure in response to exercise. (Identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and relate implications) Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  43. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.11 Discuss how systolic and diastolic blood pressure respond to dynamic and static exercise Dynamic exercise is that which requires muscular movement and elevated heart rate. i.e. traditional exercise. Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  44. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.11 Discuss how systolic and diastolic blood pressure respond to dynamic and static exercise • Cardiac performance is determined by factors such as preload, afterload and heart rate. Preload is related to the end-diastolic volume when there is passive tension in the ventricles. • The Frank-Starling law of the heart refers to the principle that the more the heart fills during diastole, the greater the force of contraction during systole, so the higher the end-diastolic volume (EDV) the more forceful the next contraction is. • Sewell et.al 2005 Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  45. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.11 Discuss how systolic and diastolic blood pressure respond to dynamic and static exercise • Written Response: Considering these factors outlined on the previous page, together with the graph you have viewed previously, discuss how systolic and diastolic blood pressure respond to dynamic exercise. Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  46. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.11 Discuss how systolic and diastolic blood pressure respond to dynamic and static exercise Yoga is a good example of static exercise. Written Response: Examine the website below, as well as two other sources, and consider the impact of static exercise on systolic and diastolic blood pressure. http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news04/2007/08/bp_yoga.html Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  47. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.12 Compare the distribution of blood at rest and the redistribution of blood during exercise • Because arteries are large, there walls offer little resistance to blood flow, even when meeting the demands of exercise. • Arterioles have a much smaller diameter and offer a great deal of resistance to blood flow. • As blood flows to the through capillaries, most of the pressure caused by the action of the heart is spent. Solomon & Davis Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  48. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.12 Compare the distribution of blood at rest and the redistribution of blood during exercise • It takes little pressure to force the blood through veins because they offer little resistance to blood flow. There diameters are large and vein walls are so thin they can hold large volumes of blood. Solomon & Davis Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  49. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.12 Compare the distribution of blood at rest and the redistribution of blood during exercise • During exercise increased muscle contraction results in increased flow of blood through the veins and into the heart, thereby increasing cardiac output. Solomon & Davis Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

  50. IB Sports, exercise and health science Exercise Physiology Topic 2 Exercise physiology 2.2.12 Compare the distribution of blood at rest and the redistribution of blood during exercise • On the other hand when one stands still for a long period of time, e.g. when a soldier stands at attention, blood pools in the veins. Within a few moments, pressure increases in the capillaries (veins are not accepting blood from them because they are dammed up with their own), and some plasma is lost to interstitial fluid. After a short time as much as 20% of the blood volume can be lost from circulation in this way. Arterial blood pressure falls and blood supply to the brain is diminished, sometimes resulting in fainting. Solomon & Davis Sub-topics 1. Structure & function of the ventilatory system 2. Structure & function of the cardiovascular system

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