Unit 3 – Area of study 2: Memory

1. Unit 3 – Area of study 2: Memory Chapter 6: Memory

2. Study design, 2010 - 2014 This knowledge includes: Comparison of models for explaining human memory: • Atkinson-Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory including maintenance and elaborative rehearsal, serial position effect and chunking • Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch’s model of working memory: central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer • levels of processing as informed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart • organisation of long-term memory including declarative and episodic memory, and semantic network theory Neural basis of memory: • role of the neuron in memory formation informed by the work of E. Richard Kandel • roles of the hippocampus and temporal lobe • consolidation theory • memory decline over the lifespan • amnesia resulting from brain trauma and neurodegenerative diseases including dementia and Alzheimer’s disease

3. Unit 3 – Area of study 2: MemoryAssessment tasks • S/N Work Requirements • Glossary – due 15th May, 2012 • Workbook which includes the learning activities from textbook as per the slides and completed activities/tasks given by your teacher (Min. 80% complete) – due 15th May, 2012 or earlier • 90% attendance rate • SACs • ERA • Week 3 (approx.) • /30 marks • Test • Week 8 (approx.) • /20 marks Note If you are away during a SAC – you MUSThand in an original medical certificate in order to re sit the SAC. This is a VCCA requirement, and parents or students who only phone or email do not satisfy this requirement, and if a medical certificate is not produced, a score of 0 will be given

4. Chapter 6 – What’s coming up? • Defining memory • Models for explaining human memory • The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi store model • Sensory memory • Short term memory • Craik & Lockharts levels of processing framework • Braddeley & Hitch’s model of working memory • Long Term memory • Serial position effect • Neural basis of memory • Role of the neuron in memory formation • Role of hippocampus & temporal lobe • consolidation theory • Amnesia resulting from brain trauma & neurodegenerative diseases • Memory decline over the lifespan

5. Who remembers ??

6. How is information processed? Models of memory

7. storing information (learned through experience) Processing different information Memory systems retrieving the information (when needed) Storing information (in different ways & types of information) Memory is not a ‘single organ’ or a single ‘thing’, rather it consists of a collection of complex interconnected and interacting systems We do not have a memory, but we have different memory systems which share a common function of: our perceptual systems, eg vision are constantly inputting information, however the brain must work out what to attend to, process and store in memory, and what not to!

8. Defining memory • Memory is often defined as the storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning. • the existence of memory indicates that learning has occurred and the memory is the internal record or representation of an event &/or experience. • Memory is also defined as requiring and as information processing (think… like a computer) Memory as information processing - • Encoding – converting information to a useable form • Storage – retaining information in memory • Retrieval – information recovered from memory when needed • All three processes are required and if any one is not included, the memory will not form. (see fig 6.4 on page 291)

9. Memory as an info-processing system • Memory is an active (uses energy) information-processing system that: • Receives, • Organises • Stores &recovers information • Memory actively alters and organises information, then stores it so that it can be easily retrieved when needed • There are 3 key processes involved in these systems. If any of these processes fail, memory will fail An additional aspect of the Atkinson & Shiffrin human multi store model included: • Structural features & Control processes.

10. Memory like a computer ???? • Encoding • Storage • Retrieval = hitting the letters on the key board -> it goes into the computer = we hit ‘save’ -> we name the file and store the information for later on when we save the file = process of getting past information back -> we need to use the right ‘cues’ in order to get the information back, but if we do then we have the original information back!

11. Automatic & effortful encoding Encoding can be spilt further into categories. read, define & provide and example of automatic encoding & effortful encoding Read box 6.3 – on p 291-292

12. Learning Activity 6.2 Page 292 of your text, Questions 1,2 & 3

13. Model’s for explaining human memory • As the human memory is complex and multifaceted, is it NOT studied together, rather it is broken down into pieces or sections, each being studied separately. • Each of these is referred to as a MODEL • The three main theories that explain how human memory functions are: • Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model • Baddeley and Hitch’s model of working memory • Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing framework

14. Atkinson-Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory • Based in the 1960’s • Proposed a shift in the single memory model => assumption that human memory has several systems/processes involved. • By Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin – Americans. • This model was also called/considered modal model, as it merged and represented many other models during this time. • It is also known as the stage model, as it put forward that the flow of information moves in stages through each component of memory. • Information passes through 3 levels of memory as it is encoded, stored and retrieved, and these 3 levels are sensory register, short term store & long term store

15. Sensory register • The entry point for all new information into memory from the external environment • Stores vast amount of incoming visual information, for 100’s milliseconds Rehearsal at time point critical for more permanent storage (LTM) If information is attended to, it moves into short term memory store If information is not attended to, it is lost • Short term store • A temporary working memory • Here we can manipulate information from every day/common tasks • Holds all information that we are aware of at that point in time • Has a limited capacity – 7 items at 1 time • Only held for about 30 sec unless we make an effort to keep it there (attend to it), eg rehearsal • Long term store • Information held relatively permanently in an highly organised way • Essentially can be an unlimited capacity • Unlike sensory register & short term store – information in long term store does not usually decay and can stored for …… a whole lifetime • According to Atkinson & Shiffrin – it is our inability to retrieve required information that results ineffective search strategies • Problems with retrieval may also be due to ‘interference’ with the information and this results in a disruption in the retrieval process

16. Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model Rehearsal Paid attention to info Info encoded or rehearsed Sensory Memory Short-term Memory Long-term Memory Sensory info Retrieval Info not paid attention to… Not rehearsed or encoded Various reasons Lost from sensory memory Displaced from short-term memory Forgotten CRIMD

17. Structural & controlled processes • Structural features of memory are the permanent features that do not alter from situation to situation – they are three levels of information processing: • Sensory memory, • Short term memory (STM) & • Long term memory (LTM) • Control processes are the activities the individual does to process the information (eg they have ‘control’ over what they attended to and process) • Attention – no information will be encoded if we don’t pay attention to it • Rehearsal – process that goes over information and helps it be stored But all of this was developed over 40 years ago ….. And we know have more knowledge …

18. Evaluating Atkinson & Shiffrin • Identified characteristics of short term store as being different and apart from long term memory • Recognised the importance of short term store & its fundamental roles • Manitence and rehearsal are still relevant, although now more complex • Despite some newly learnt differences, still held as the original multi store model, although now just more complex • It is now clear that information does not ‘just flow’ as described in Atkinson & Shiffrin’ 3 stage sequence • There is a separate sensory register for auditory information & haptic (touch) information – and maybe even more now referred to as a sensory memory system • Short term store now believed to be a much more complex system • Different types of rehearsal have been identified in short term memory • Long term store is no longer a single store -> rather it includes more complex systems & structures of storage. Advantages Limitations

19. Learning Activity 6.3 Page 295 of your text, Questions 1-7

20. Stages of memory – Sensory Memory • Sensory Memory • Entry point of memory • Capacity to store all sensory stimuli (unlimited) • Stored as the original form of stimulus (buffer – need more processing before it can be stored) • Not consciously aware of most of the info in sensory stage, directing attention to it is what causes transfer to short-term memory • Incoming stimuli is stored as a memory trace in different sensory registers based on the type of sense • Iconic memory – visual • Echoic memory - auditory

21. Sensory Memory includes • Iconic memory ( I as in eye) • Visual images are stored here for about 0.2-0.4 seconds • Stored as overlapping images • Allows perception of flowing movement during a film, or a figure drawn with a sparkler at night • Echoic memory (e as in ear) • Sound stimuli are stored here for around 3-4 seconds • This is longer than in iconic memory as sound takes longer to produce • Allows comprehension of speech by connecting individual sounds coherently into words and sentences

22. Learning Activity 6.5 Page 299 of your text, Questions 1-7 Note: there is also an interesting read in Box 6.4 on photographic memory

23. Stages of memory – Short-term memory • Activity: Capacity of STM • Read aloud the following series of numbers and ask students to recall each line in order. • 6, 4, 7 (3 items) • 9, 0, 1, 8 (4 items) • 4, 3, 5, 7, 2 (5 items) • 7, 1, 3, 8, 9, 4 (6 items) • 3, 6, 8, 4, 9, 1, 5 (7 items) • 2, 6, 4, 9, 1, 5, 7, 3 (8 items) • 1, 7, 5, 8, 6, 3, 9, 2, 4 (9 items) • 2, 6, 7, 3, 5, 4, 9, 1, 8, 3 (10 items) • On average, how many numbers did each person recall from each list? This is the capacity of STM. • Activity: Duration of STM • Students learn the following sequence of numbers • 4, 5, 3, 6, 2, 7, 8 • Test immediately, then after 2 minutes • How many people remembered the sequence? This is duration of STM

24. Stages of memory: Short-term memory • Short-term memory (STM) is a memory system that has a limited capacity and duration • It also stores the information in an encoded format • Described as the “seat of conscious thought” – information only registers in STM once it is paid attention to – in conscious awareness • Duration of STM • Without rehearsal (active use), recall starts to decline after about 12 seconds and is almost completely gone after 18 seconds (occasionally can last up to 30 sec) • Using rehearsal, information can be retained indefinitely in STM

25. Learning Activity 6. 7 Page 307 of your text, Questions 1-7, don’t worry about Q 8.

26. Short-term memory • Capacity of STM • The amount of pieces of information that can be stored in STM is 7 ± 2 (between 5-9 items) • Adding in more items displaces (pushes out) existing items in STM – this is called displacement, shown below • Recalling information from long-term memory can also displace items from STM • Information is lost primarily within STM by either displacement (pushing out) or by decay (not being used- think fruit!) Now becomes ..

27. Short term memory Capacity of STM cont….. • Chunking is a method of increasing the capacity of STM • Definiton: grouping or separate bits of information into a larger single chunk of information. • Separate pieces of info are remembered as single units (groups info into chunks) • Only similar info can be chunked together (chunking) • Still only retain 7 ± 2 chunks • Chunks can be numbers, images, words, sentences, phrases and even abbreviations • This is why we have phone numbers broken into parts …… 5427 2600 rather than 54272600.

28. Short term memory STM as working memory • Term working memory is used to emphasise the active part of memory where information we are aware of constantly, is actively ‘worked on; in a variety of ways • Enables us to use the information in sensory memory and move it to LTM • Often we combine information from sensory memory and LTM to perform mental processes, such as emotions, comprehension, problem solving, planning & daydreaming. • So this ‘working memory’ provides a temporary storage facility and mental workspace for information currently being used within a conscious cognitive activity. • The STM working memory is often compared to a computer

29. Effects of rehearsal • Rehearsal is the process of actively and consciously manipulating information to keep it in STM for longer than the normal 18 sec. (Increases duration) • Maintenance rehearsal • Repeating info over and over usually vocally (out loud) or sub-vocally (in your head) • Works indefinitely to keep info in STM • Does not always transfer info into long-term memory • Elaborate rehearsal • Links new info to existing knowledge in a meaningful way • More active than maintenance rehearsal (requires more effort) • Very effective in transferring info into long-term memory, especially when using personal link (self-reference effect)

30. Effects of rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal Elaborative Rehearsal Paid attention to info Sensory Memory Short-term Memory Long-term Memory Sensory info Retrieval Info not paid attention to… Not rehearsed or encoded Various reasons Lost from sensory memory Displaced from short-term memory Forgotten CRIMD

31. Learning Activity 6. 10 Page 312 – we can do this one as a class!

32. Stages of memory – Long-term memory • Long-term memory (LTM) is the relatively permanent memory system that has potentially unlimited capacity and duration (life-long) • Info in LTM is inactive (not in use) and we are not consciously aware of it until it is retrieved • Due to the sheer volume of info in LTM, we use cues (intentional or unintentional) to speed up the process of retrieval • Cues enable retrieval of specific info, not the entire contents of LTM – usually very efficient and very fast • Once retrieved, the info is stored in STM until it is no longer needed/in use. It is then transferred back into LTM • Failure to retrieve info from LTM is usually due to poor organisation during encoding and storage, or an inappropriate cue was used during retrieval • Info is encoded in terms of its meaning (semantically)

33. Types of long-term memory • Memories in LTM are relatively permanent or at least very longlasting • Forgetting is most likely due to a failure to retrieve info – poor encoding or poor cue • Retrieval cues: a stimulus that assists in the process of locating and retrieving information stored in memory. • There are two major types of LTM (LTM stores): • Procedural memory (Implicit memories – “how?”) • Knowing how to do stuff – actions and activities • Often difficult to explain this knowledge • Usually learnt through observation and practice • Not usually consciously recalled • E.g. making a cup of tea/riding a bike

34. Types of long-term memory • Declarative memory (Explicit memories – “What?”) • Memories of facts and/or events • Usually consciously recalled • Two types of declarative memory: • Episodic memory • Memories of specific events or personal experiences • Include references to “when” and “where” • Semantic memory • Memories of general academic knowledge • Facts not necessarily related to a specific place or time • Include references about “what” and “who”

35. Characteristics of the stages of memory

36. Levels of processing framework –Craik and Lockhart • Craik and Lockhart proposed a framework of memory that emphasised the importance of the level of processing in how well information is stored in LTM • Info is stored best in LTM semantically (by meaning) so if the meanings of concepts are processes during learning, they are more likely to be recalled later – elaborate rehearsal is more effective for LTM than maintenance rehearsal • The deeper the level of processing (more elaborate encoding) the better the recall • Visual encoding – “is there a letter k in the word?” • Acoustic encoding – “does it rhyme with hat?” • Semantic encoding – “is it a synonym of difficult?”

37. Levels of processing framework • Levels of processing or depth are hard to define specifically and to measure • Despite this problem the idea of better processing and therefore better storage is supported widely by research • Craikand Lockhart

38. Model of working memory – Baddeleyand Hitch’s • Baddeley and Hitch’s model of working memory describes STM as a functional system with three components that work independently but can also interact: • Phonological loop (Verbal working memory) • Verbal information is stored in a sound-based form (phonological) • Only hold about 2 sec worth of info (around 7 items depending on length of words) • Visuo-spatial sketchpad (Visual working memory) • Visual info is anything you can see or imagine, spatial info is position and location of objects in space • Also has limited duration and capacity (around 4 items)

39. Model of working memory – Baddeley and Hitch’s • Central executive • Controls attention • Integrates information from the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad with info from LTM • Coordinates the flow of info between the working memory system and LTM • Manipulates the info held in the phonological loops and visuo-spatial sketchpad – the working component of the model of working memory • Episodic buffer (a fourth component added in 2000) • A sub-system of the working memory that enables the different components to interact with LTM • Has limited capacity (about 4 chunks of info) • Can hold info in any form and so can integrate phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad – temporary workspace where various pieces of info can be put together in a meaningful way • Controlled by central executive

40. Model of working memory Sensory input Rehearsal Rehearsal Phonological loop Visuo-spatial sketchpad Central Executive Episodic Buffer Long-Term Memory

41. Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch’s model of working memory • Central Executive • Controls attention • Integrates info from the two storage sub systems • does the ‘working out’ • The seat of consciousness

42. Baddeley & Hitch’s model of working memory • Read example on pg. 319 • Once we have read it .....Going to party the following is: • phonological loop stores the directions • Visio spatial sketchpad visualises the route • Central executive directs the Episodic buffer to combine information from storage branches • Episodic buffer also adds information from LTM • Episodic buffer used as the mental ‘workbench’ to make adjustments

43. Learning Activity 6. 11&Learning Activity 6. 18 Page 314 questions 1-6 & page 320 questions 1, 4, 5, 7 ONLY

44. Again … just in cases you need to refresh Stages of memory – Long-term memory • Long-term memory (LTM) is the relatively permanent memory system that has potentially unlimited capacity and duration (life-long) • Info in LTM is inactive (not in use) and we are not consciously aware of it until it is retrieved • Due to the sheer volume of info in LTM, we use cues (intentional or unintentional) to speed up the process of retrieval • Cues ( retrieval cues) enable retrieval of specific info, not the entire contents of LTM – usually very efficient and very fast • Once retrieved, the info is stored in STM until it is no longer needed/in use. It is then transferred back into LTM • Failure to retrieve info from LTM is usually due to poor Organisation during encoding and storage, or an inappropriate cue was used during retrieval • Info is encoded in terms of its meaning (semantically)

45. Types of long-term memory • Memories in LTM are relatively permanent or at least very longlasting • Forgetting is most likely due to a failure to retrieve info – poor encoding or poor cue • There are two major types of LTM (LTM stores): • Procedural memory (Implicit memories – “how?”) • Knowing how to do stuff – actions and activities • Often difficult to explain this knowledge • Usually learnt through observation and practice • Not usually consciously recalled • E.g. making a cup of tea/riding a bike

46. Types of long-term memory • Declarative memory (Explicit memories – “What?”) • Memories of facts and/or events • Usually consciously recalled • Two types of declarative memory: • Episodic memory • Memories of specific events or personal experiences • Include references to “when” and “where” • Semantic memory • Memories of general academic knowledge • Facts not necessarily related to a specific place or time • Include references about “what” and “who”

47. Tulving (1983) • Tulvingargues that semantic & episodic memory systems often work together in forming new memories – it isn't always one or the other. • In such instances, the memory that ultimately forms may consist of an autobiographical episode and semantic information.

48. Types of long-term memory • Complete the table in your workbooks

49. Learning Activity 6. 16 Page 325 questions 1-5 &

50. Organisation of Information in LTM • Long term memory’s most distinctive feature is its organisation of information • The task of retrieving information from LTM differs from the process of retrieving information from STM. • In short term memory, the search and retrieve tasks involve scanning only 7 + 2 items to locate the relevant information. • This 7 +2 system doesn’t work with LTM, as there is such vast information to store, so there is a need for organisation to assist the storage and retrieval process.