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Topic 5 – Population Policy

Topic 5 – Population Policy. A – Fertility Policies B – Mortality Policies. A. Fertility Policies. 1. Population Policy 2. Fertility Decline 3. Fertility Enhancement 4. Family Planning. 1. Population Policy. Context Fairly recent phenomenon.

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Topic 5 – Population Policy

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  1. Topic 5 – Population Policy A – Fertility Policies B – Mortality Policies

  2. A. Fertility Policies • 1. Population Policy • 2. Fertility Decline • 3. Fertility Enhancement • 4. Family Planning

  3. 1. Population Policy • Context • Fairly recent phenomenon. • Many governments have expressed interest in controlling some aspects of the populations. • Few nations had formal population policies prior to the 1950s: • Developed and developing world alike. • India was the first country to have a family planning policy in 1951. • Still today the place where the needs are among the most urgent. • Became an issue with the population explosion. • The world undertook a reproductive revolution. • About 80% of the population of developing countries is subject to population policies. • Most of them are words without meaning.

  4. 1. Population Policy • Definition • Official government strategy. • Set of guidelines specifically intended to affect: • Size of the population. • Rate of growth of a population: fertility (enhance or reduce). • Distribution. • Composition (ethnic). • Population program (direct policies) • Means to make to policy operational. • Public or private initiatives. • Services, information, persuasion, coercion or legitimation. Government Policy Intentional Program Impacts Population

  5. 1. Population Policy • Indirect policies • Economic and social programs can have an impact on population. • Taxation (credits and deductions for children). • Health and education. • Welfare. • Migration • Can have a significant long term impact. • Either promote emigration or immigration. • Often related to the labor market. • Becoming a very sensitive issue in several developed countries: • The United States and Europe facing migration pressures.

  6. 1. Population Policy • Limited success of policies controlling migration • Immigration is easier to start than stop. • Actions taken to restrict immigration often have the opposite effect. • Fundamental causes of immigration often outside the control of policy makers. • Immigrants understand immigration better than policy makers. • Immigrants are able to circumvent policies aimed at stopping them.

  7. 1. Population Policy

  8. 1. Population Policy • Labor force • Population in age of working: • On average between 15-65. • Composition and quality are two major concerns. • Substantial changes forthcoming: • More workers and they will be better educated. • More minorities and more women. • Older retirement age. • Size of the labor force • Size of the working age population: • Determined by the population’s age structure. • How many people fall between the ages of 15 and 65. • Rate of labor force participation: • Participation rates are affected by many factors. • The role of women in the society in general.

  9. 1. Employment as % of Population Aged 15-64, 2001

  10. 1. Population Policy • Should government have any population policy? • Family size is perceived to be a personal decision and technically a human right. • Most are ineffective outside situations of coercion. • Except immigration policies where governments have a level control: • Even immigration policies appear to be failing (e.g. US and Europe). • Funds used to develop a bureaucracy that thinks in terms of plans, rules and procedures: • Does not fit well with human reproduction. • Provide employment, often using international funds. • Tool to legitimize government control. • Market forces appear to be much more effective. What is a population policy?

  11. 2. Fertility Decline • Antinatalist policies • Policies that discourage births and try to slow population growth. • Lower the number of new children. • Policies and programs oriented toward fertility decline have been increasingly common. • Controlling population growth is often a politically controversial issue. • Developing countries: • Attained the 3rd stage of the Demographic Transition. • The promotion of birth control policies has often been viewed as racist. • Little, if any, success outside situations of coercion.

  12. 2. Fertility Decline • Sterilization • A highly coercive and invasive program. • Often the outcome of a lack of effectiveness of softer approaches. • India initiated a sterilization program in 1976. • Government officials receiving incentives or quotas to find candidates. • 22 million people sterilized, but mostly older man already having children. • Illiterate people often targeted for sterilization often not aware of the implications.

  13. Regulation of the One Child Policy

  14. 2. Fertility Decline

  15. 3. Fertility Enhancement • Pro-natal policies • Exist in many nations currently experiencing population decline or ZPG: • Began in the 1970s. • Reflect anxiety about potential population decline. • Most of Europe. • Policies: • Generous welfare benefits (payments for each children). • Liberal maternity / paternity leave programs. • Substantial investment in child day care facilities. • Free education through University level. • Limited level of success but appear to have increased fertility (particularly when TFR was very low at start).

  16. Order of Maternal Glory, Soviet Union • 1st class: mothers bearing and raising 9 children. • 2nd class: mothers bearing and raising 8 children. • 3rd class: mothers bearing and raising 7 children. In which context population policies related to fertility enhancement and decline are taking place?

  17. 4. Family Planning

  18. 4. Family Planning • Concept • Designed to help families achieve a desired size. • 1/3 of the population growth in the world is the result of incidental or unwanted pregnancies. • 210 million pregnancies in the world per year, of which 100 million are unwanted pregnancies (47%). • 46 million abortion per year. • 500,000 women die each year from unsafe abortions. • 49% of pregnancies in the US are unwanted. • If women could have only the number of children they wanted, the TFR in many countries would fall nearly to 1.

  19. 4. Family Planning • Contraceptive use • Significant increase in the 1960s and 1970s. • From 10% to 50% in the 1990s. • Traditional methods • Abstinence. • Withdrawal. • Douche. • Modern methods • Oral contraceptives. • Intra Uterine Devices (IUD; e.g. diaphragm) • Injectables and implants. • Male and female condoms. • Spermicides. • Emergency contraception (day after pill). • Voluntary sterilization. • Abortion.

  20. Percentage of Users Becoming Pregnant During 1st Year of Contraception, United States

  21. Contraception Methods used among Married Women, 15-49

  22. Abortion Rates in Western Industrialized Countries

  23. Gestation Time Before Abortion, United States

  24. Main Events Related to Family Planning

  25. 4. Family Planning • US view on family planning • Contributes between 40 and 50% of international FP aid. • Characterized by paradoxes: • Between the religious ethics of many elected leaders (often hypocritical) and a liberal urban society. • Strongly supportive of FP in the 1960s and 1970s. • Change in the 1980s: • Reagan stopped support to the United Nations Population Fund. • Revoked by Clinton in 1993. • Current policies: • Anti-abortion and increasingly anti-family planning (anti-contraception) domestic policies. • Promote a conservative moral and religious agenda. • Growing violence against family planning and abortion clinics.

  26. 4. Family Planning • Controlling population growth • Natural increase: • Biggest factor in population growth in most countries. • Reducing this component will require substantial progress in social and economic development. • Empowerment of women: • Guarantee of their human rights: • No jobs, no education, no money, • Equal access to nutrition, health care and education • Unable to own land or inherit property • Right to reproductive and sexual health. • Reproductive health services: • Family planning. • Contraception. • Abortion.

  27. 4. Family Planning • Family Planning programs • Still considerable unmet demand for reproductive health services. • Require financing. • Must be equitable: • Disparity between accessibility to the poor and the wealthy. • Better access in cities. • Fertility levels among the poor are generally higher: • In rural areas, unwanted fertility reduces the ability to provide for the children. • Put stress on local resources and local environments. • Help push people into migration.

  28. 4. Family Planning • Efficient Family planning activities • Strong government support? • Must be medically, economically and culturally acceptable. • Counseling ensures informed consent in contraceptive choice. • Provision of contraceptives (subsidies or market price?). • Training of staff and education of public. • Monitoring the results. • Research for new or improved methods. • Impact • Much evidence to support the idea that family planning programs have been having a great affect. • Economic development and socioeconomic transformations as necessary precondition for effective family planning programs?

  29. Female Literacy and Total Fertility in Selected Countries, 2001

  30. 4. Family Planning • Family planning in the United States • Birth control use: • 20% of sexually active U.S. teens reported using no birth control • 4% in Great Britain, 6.5% in Sweden, 12% in France and 13% in Canada. • Between 50% and 70% of girls in other countries used birth control pills, only 32% did so in the United States. • Different attitudes of developed countries: • Accepting attitude about teen-age sexual relationships. • Clearer expectations for responsible sexual behavior. • More accessible reproductive health services. • The U.S. is the only country with a formal policy promoting abstinence only. • One-third of school districts teaching sex ed mandate as an abstinence-only program. Why family planning is such a controversial issue?

  31. B. Mortality Policies • 1. Healthcare Systems • 2. Missing Female Population • 3. Genocide

  32. 1. Healthcare Systems • Mortality control • Goal of most governments. • Seek to improve the health standards and life expectancy of their populations. • Expenditures for such health programs are often diminished by conflicting priorities for limited government funds: • Health programs lose out to military spending. • Grandiose infrastructure development programs whose benefits accrue to a small minority of the overall population. • Surveys have shown that small investments over the most threatening causes of death lead to significant increase in health. • In other cases, health care has become a serious financial burden. • More accepted (culturally and socially) than fertility control.

  33. 1. Healthcare Systems • Health • Key component of human development. • Broad indicators of human health show that significant progress has been made over the past few decades. • Globalization has enabled new threats of diffusion. • Conditions in many Third World countries remain difficult, especially for the poorest groups. • Health conditions in Third World countries are not necessarily related to climate, but mostly to poverty. • Density issues • Human densities favor the diffusion of diseases. • Strong urbanization can be linked with declining health conditions.

  34. Structure of Healthcare Systems

  35. 1. Healthcare Systems • Influence of values on systems • European social ethic: public good, social solidarity. • American individualistic ethic: individual good, social fragmentation. • Challenges • Every country is dealing with increasing health care costs. • Any system can have problems if it is underfunded, no matter how good it is theoretically. • Privatization exists to various degrees in each system. • No country allows private elements to price people out of healthcare.

  36. Cigarette Consumption per Person, 1960-2002

  37. 2. Missing Female Population • Missing female population • About 100-135 million females are missing from the world population. • Normal ratio at birth is about 100 girls to 105 boys. • Boys are weaker and the ratio evens out after 5 years. • Since 1900 the ratio has been declining, especially after 1990. • Particularly the case for China and India (0-4 age group): • China accounts for about 60 million missing females; India for 25 million. • 1990: 110 boys per 100 girls. • 1995: 118 boys per 100 girls. • 2000: 119 boys per 100 girls. • Ratios even higher for second and third child. • Problems exacerbated by declining fertility and growing standards of living.

  38. Sex Ratio (males per 100 females), 2015 Blue: More females than males Green: Equivalence Red: More males than females.

  39. Infant Mortality Rate (per 1000 under age 5), by Sex, Selected Countries, 2000

  40. 5. Missing Female Population • Missing female population in India • Sex determination tests outlawed (1994): • Nobody ever convicted of infringing the law. • Ultrasound for “abdominal cyst”: 500 rupees ($11). • Abortion: 2,000 rupees ($44). • 25% of all female deaths between the age 16 and 24 are due to “accidental burns”. • Between 5,000 and 12,000 “dowry deaths” per year. • Sex ratio is still declining: • 962 girls for 1000 boys (1981). • 945 girls for 1000 boys (1991). • 927 girls for 1000 boys (2001). • 919 girls for 1000 boys (2011). • Can go as low as 770 in some regions.

  41. Missing Female Population, 1998

  42. Males minus Females, China, 2015

  43. 2. Missing Female Population • Gender roles and the missing female population • Sons are perceived as an asset: • Farm work. • Security for old age (no social security in several countries). • Take over the family name. • Sons get better health care, food and schooling. • 100% of them must find a bride and produce an heir. • In China, the birth of a boy is labeled as “big happiness” while the birth of a girl is labeled as “small happiness”. • Daughters are perceived as a liability: • Marry and leave home to provide labor to another family. • Dowries are often to be paid.

  44. 2. Missing Female Population • Causes of the missing female population • High female mortality in infancy or childhood: • Preferential treatment for boys; better food and health care. • Infanticide. • Excess female mortality in utero: • Sex-selective abortion. • 500,000 and 750,000 unborn Chinese girls are aborted every year after sex screening. • Net out-migration of female children: • International adoptions. • Abandon; Orphanage are strictly populated by girls. • In some cases 90% of the girls in orphanages will die. • Sex-selective undercount of children: • Daughters are not declared. • No education provided by the state. • “Sold” / “rented” as a factory worker, wife or prostitute.

  45. 2. Missing Female Population • Consequences of the missing female population • Demographic “backlash”: • May help achieve demographic stability. • Fast decline in fertility. • Fast decline of population growth and then of absolute population. • Social consequences: • Limit the advancement of women in society. • The “value” of females will increase considerably in the future: • Millions of men will not be able to find a wife. • Changes in the economics of marriage. • Inverted dowry; “Bride prices” are becoming more common (about $4,000 in China). • Daughters increasingly an asset for industrial work. What are the causes and consequences of the missing female population?

  46. 3. Genocide • Definition • Killed more people than war. • Intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group as such (UN 1948 Convention). • Killing members of the group, causing serious bodily or mental harm to its members. • Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part. • Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. • Genocide succeeds when state sovereignty blocks international responsibility to protect. • Since founding of UN: • Over 45 genocides and politicides. • Over 70 million dead.

  47. 3. Genocide • Stage 1: Classification • “Us versus them” mentality. • Create divisions. • Distinguish by nationality, ethnicity, race, or religion. • Bipolar societies most likely to have genocide because no way for classifications to fade away through inter-marriage. • Classification is a primary method of dividing society and creating a power struggle between groups. • Stage 2: Symbolization • Names: “Jew”, “German”, “Hutu”, “Tutsi”. • Languages. • Types of dress. • Group uniforms. • Colors and religious symbols.

  48. Symbolization (Nazi Germany) Jewish Passport: “Reisepäss” Required to be carried by all Jews by 1938. Preceded the yellow star.

  49. Symbolization (Nazi Germany) Nazis required the yellow Star of David emblem to be worn by nearly all Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe by 1941.

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