Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) received the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of natural radioactivity.

1. Henri Becquerel(1852-1908) received the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of natural radioactivity. Wrapped photographic plate showed clear silhouettes, when developed, of the uranium salt samples stored atop it. • 1896 While studying photographic images of various • fluorescent and phosphorescent materials, • Becquerel finds potassium-uranyl sulfate • spontaneously emits radiation capable of • penetrating • thick opaque black paper • aluminum plates • copper plates • Exhibited by all known compounds of uranium • (phosphorescent or not) & metallic uranium itself.

2. 1930splates coated with thick photographic emulsions • (gelatins carrying silver bromide crystals) • carried up mountains or in balloons clearly trace • cosmic ray tracks through their depth when developed • light produces spots of submicroscopic silver grains • a fast charged particle can leave a trail of Aggrains • 1/1000 mm (1/25000 in) diameter grains • small singly charged particles - thin discontinuous wiggles • only single grains thick • heavy, multiply-charged particles - thick, straight tracks November 1935 Eastman Kodak plates carried aboard Explorer II’s record altitude (72,395 ft) manned flight into the stratosphere 1937 Marietta Blau and Herta Wambacher report “stars” of tracks resulting from cosmic ray collisions with nuclei within the emulsion

3. 1937 Marietta Blau and Herta Wambacher report “stars” of tracks resulting from cosmic ray collisions with nuclei within the emulsion

4. 1894After weeks in the • Ben Nevis Observatory, • British Isles, • Charles T. R. Wilson • begins study of cloud • formation • a test chamber forces trapped moist air to expand • supersaturated with water vapor • condenses into a fine mist upon the dust • particles in the air • each cycle carried dust that settled to the bottom • purer air required larger, more sudden expansion • observed small wispy trails of droplets • forming without dust to condense on!

5. 1937-1939 Cloud chamber photographs by George Rochesterand J.G. Wilson of Manchester University showed the large number of particles contained within cosmic ray showers.

8. 1952 Donald A. Glaser invents the bubble chamber • boiling begins at nucleation centers (impurities) in a liquid • along ion trails left by the passage of charged particles • in a superheated liquid tiny bubbles form for about 10 msec • before being obscured by a rapid, agitated “rolling” boil • hydrogen,deuterium,propane(C3H6)or Freon(CF3Br)is stored • as a liquid at its boiling point by external pressure (5-20 atm) • super-heated by sudden expansion created by piston or diaphragm • bright flash illumination and stereo cameras record 3D images • through the depth of the chamber (~6mm resolution possible) • a strong (2-3.5 tesla) magnetic field can identify the sign of a • particle’s charge and its momentum (by the radius of its path) • 1960 Glaserawarded the Nobel Prizefor Physics

9. Spark Chambers + + - - - - + - - - - + - - - - + - - - - + + + + - + d • High Voltage across two metal • plates, separated by a small • (~cm) gap can break down.

10. If an ionizing particle passes through the • gap producing ion pairs, spark discharges • will follow it’s track. • In the absence of HV across the gap, the • ion pairs usually recombine after a few msec, • but this means you can apply the HV after • the ion pairs have formed, and still produce • sparks revealing any charged particle’s path! • Spark chambers (& the cameras that record • what they display) can be triggeredby • external electronics that “recognize” the event • topology of interest.

11. B Incoming particle Outgoing particles A C HV pulse Logic Unit

12. 1968-70 Georges Charpakdevelops the multiwire proportional chamber 1992Charpakreceives the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention

18. 20 mm dia 2 mm spacing argon-isobutane spatial resolutions < 1mm possible

20. The Detector in various stages of assembly