A History of the Context of Higher Education

1. A History of the Context of Higher Education Alan Gorr, PhD Dean, College of Education and Health Services Benedictine University

2. The Context of Education • How to write history is a study unto itself. It is called historiography • Often the sources of history are the information easily available such as government documents, literature, and chronicles of armies and other organizations. • So much of the historical data is not available to the researcher.

3. Sources of History • Educational Institutions and their programs of study are sometimes the cause or the effect of historical change. • There is no foolproof method to determine how ideas are originated, transmitted or utilized. At best, it is guesswork.

4. Our Sources of Educational History Include: • Time: Approximate recognized epochs. These are very open to question and refinement • Place: For the purposes of a history of American Higher Education, we consider the Mediterranean, European and American experiences.

5. Aspects of Society • The aspects of society that command our attention are • Schools: the recognized educational institutions • Political Systems: The systems of governance and the political units at the time • Economics: How goods and services were exchanged

6. Aspects of Society Continued • Religion: What were the ‘ultimate concerns’ of people in a given period? What conditioned these concerns? • Philosophy: What were the ideas that underlay the systems of knowledge, religion and government? • Science and Technology: What was known and how was it used?

7. The Periods of History • We will consider the following approximate periods of history. Recognizing that these are heuristic devices only and that they are open to challenge in every detail. • Ancient: 500 BC-500AD This encompasses the rise and fall of both Greece and Rome. • Early Medieval: 500-1000 AD. This includes the fall of Rome and predates the rise of larger states and educational institutions.

8. Periods of History Continued • Late Medieval: 1000-1500. Includes the rise of early nations, contacts with the outside world, larger educational institutions • Renaissance: 1500-1700. Embraces a rebirth of rapid cultural change and development. • Enlightenment: 1700-1800. This is the proto-modern, scientific world of Europe and the American Colonies.

9. Periods of History Continued • Industrial: 1800-1900. The distinguishing feature of this era was mass production industry on an international scale—one that transforms world economics. • 20th Century: This period is characterized by massive technological and political changes.

10. The Ancient Period500 BC-500 AD • Schools: Characterized by Apprenticeship, Rhetorical and Philosophical Academies • There are dual emphases, one based on a high level of engineering an craftsmanship. The other by love of underlying mathematical and scientific principles. • Abstract learning was only for the well-to-do free born males. • Complex language was used to distinguish social classes and closely guarded.

11. The Ancient Period500 BC-500 ADPhilosophy • In ancient times all learning was considered branches of philosophy (love of wisdom). It is only in the last 200 years that mathematics and the laboratory sciences have become independent of philosophy. • Philosophy may be considered to be of 2 main schools

12. The Ancient Period500 BC-500 ADPhilosophy • Idealism holds that reality exists in the mind. What we see around us gets its meaning from our ideas of it. • Realism holds that our mind merely approximates what we perceive and we use mental structures to give reality its meaning. • Both schools of thought account for some knowledge but not all of it.

13. The Ancient Period500 BC-500 ADPhilosophy Cont’d • In ancient times philosophy developed and organized classical ideas about physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, political science, literature, and ethics. This organization and terminology underlies the classification and terminology of knowledge throughout the ages.

14. The Early Medieval Period500-1000 AD • Rome had united the western world for 500 years. It had preserved Greek art and learning, spread the Latin language throughout the area, and advanced engineering and technology. • It was also a brutal and dictatorial government. • Christianity had steadily gained ground against all odds.

15. End of Rome • By the time Rome lost control of its empire, Christianity was the major religion of both the Romans and their “barbarian” opponents. • It substituted a life of faith for a life of power. Large, effective governments, widespread literacy, and intellectual investigation all went into eclipse. • The higher education that did survive was only within the Church, which became its guardian.

16. Life of the Early Middle Ages • Daily life was simple, feudal, and primitive. • Christianity as faith dominated all aspects of life. • Classical knowledge was largely lost and what remained was distilled into simple statements of faith. General education was rare. • Individual investigations into science were considered an assault on the Church.

17. The Late Middle Ages1000-1500 AD • These 500 years represent a turning point in medieval history. The Crusades dominated this period. • The presenting reason for the crusades was to rescue the Holy Land from the non-Christians– The Muslims. • European Christians believed them to be uncultured and not familiar with Christianity

18. Late Middle Ages Cont’d • Much to the surprise of European Christians, the Muslims had • preserved and built on ancient knowledge • invented algebra and • advanced Chemistry, architecture, metallurgy and education. • Shocked at the differences in cultures, the Christians began to adapt and adopt. • The Church alternately accepted and forbade the influence from the east. • The rise of the universities was a result of Christianity’s contact with Islam.

19. Late Middle Ages Cont’d • Political Systems: Larger Kingdoms, contacts across political boundaries. • Economic: Expanded import and export, international exploration • Religion: Church began to embrace intellectual development, and patronize the arts. • Philosophy: Elaborated. Ancient texts were re- translated and combined with faith. The bases of religion, logic and sciences were developed.

20. Late Middle Ages Cont’dThe Liberal Arts • The Seven Liberal Arts: Plato’s understanding of the sources of truth divided was divided into 2 parts, language and mathematics, a model that has persisted until recently. • Each area begins with concrete skills and then moves to a more abstract level.

21. Late Middle Ages Cont’dThe Liberal Arts Cont’d • The Trivium is the language area. It consists of grammar, logic and rhetoric • The Quadrivium is the mathematics area. It consists of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. • These 3 of the Trivium and 4 of the Quadrivium are the classic 7 liberal arts.

22. Late Middle Ages Cont’d • Education: Church schooling became widespread, as did literacy. Higher education develops in France, England, and Italy. • The organization of higher education that exists today, began in the late middle ages. Themes of academic autonomy and accountability are already present. • Vocational Education: Develops through craft guilds, and apprentice systems.

23. The Renaissance1500-1700 • The Renaissance (or rebirth) had 2 sides • It cultivated a love for antiquity • It favored rapid development of all activities that led to a higher standard of living. • It began in the south (Italy) and moved northward over the time from 1400-1600.

24. The Renaissance Cont’dFive Revolutions • This period may be thought of as 5revolutions. • Religious Revolution: Starting with Luther, many questioned the authority of the Catholic Church and emphasized individual education and judgment. • Scientific: Breakthroughs in astronomy challenged the Church’s lock on truth.

25. The Renaissance Cont’dThe 5 Revolutions Cont’d • Information: The invention of the movable type printing press brought an explosion of the availability of information, not unlike modern electronics. • Government: In England, power passed from the Titled Nobility to Landed Gentry. This led to new models of education for the people

26. The Renaissance Cont’dThe 5 Revolutions Cont’d • Philosophy: The philosophy of Descartes led to a new trend in science and thought that invested the individual with the capacity to judge truth for himself and therefore to investigate. • Higher education begins to consider progress in humanities and science as its mission.

27. The Renaissance Cont’d • Governments: This was the rise of the modern nation-state with large military, economic, and diplomatic initiatives. • It led the way to national programs for universal education to further the needs of the state • Large universities were established throughout Europe, in all the major cities. They cultivated the liberal arts and legal professions.

28. The RenaissanceDevelopment of Universities • The universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris and Bologna begin in the 13th century. By the 16 century the pattern of governance, faculties, and autonomy had become set in European Universities and is still the model, the world over.

29. The Renaissance Cont’d • Economics: Great development in international trade and high quality products. • Mercantilism is highly developed • Colonialism becomes an engine of economic development • These forces also combine to demand educational development and reform.

30. The Renaissance Cont’d • Technology: This was a time of refinement and development in all the crafts and arts. Today it is regarded as a golden age for music, art and architecture. • Protestantism and Catholicism competed in artistic development (Reformation and Counter Reformation)

31. The Enlightenment1700-1800 • When people think of the modern world today, they are often thinking of the models first developed during the European Enlightenment. • Government: Nations now dominate the political landscape. Experiments in democracy in US, England and France.

32. The Enlightenment Cont’d1700-1800 • Education: No Universal Schooling. Universities well developed. Beginnings of secular and national education. • Economic: Theories from tight control to laissez faire. Experimentation with policy. • Religion: Secular and Deist alternatives to organized Christianity develop. Many sub groups in US. (Ref development of faith based colleges in the US)

33. The Enlightenment Cont’d1700-1800 • Philosophy: Explorations of the limits of reason as well as explorations of scientific method. Much thought is given to systems of government and the education that supports them. • Technology: All things mechanical were explored, even some combustion engines. Modern Chemistry and physics.

34. Industrial Revolution1800-1900 • While the industrial revolution is the name of the period, education is properly its focus, as progress was largely fueled by education. • Nations recognize that universal literacy and scientific progress are key to their development.

35. Industrial Revolution Cont’d1800-1900 • Childhood as a special period of life becomes an important area of theory, investigation and educational development. • Early childhood and elementary education are seen as central to societies’ development in all European countries and the US.

36. Industrial Revolution Cont’d1800-1900. The American Experience • The Ivy League and other elite universities of the east coast had developed during colonial times. • In the 19th century, sectarian colleges and state universities spread throughout the Midwest and later, the west. • Typically there were not enough qualified high school graduates to enter, so many colleges developed their own academies and programs of freshman studies.

37. 19th Century American Education • At mid century, universal elementary education was developing as function of the states. • The Morrill Acts gave impetus to the development of large state universities. • Small private colleges throughout the Midwest brought higher education within reach of the population.

38. 19th Century American EducationContinued • Large immigration of Irish and Italians gave rise to parallel, Catholic schools at elementary, secondary and university levels. • Dominant philosophies in the US were those which emphasized utilitarianism, scientific method and pragmatism • American universities therefore had aspects of traditional humanities, religious consciousness and practical application.

39. 19th Century American EducationContinued • The Industrial Revolution in Europe gave rise to national curricula. In the US local control was emphasized. • In Europe testing and selection of students for further education was the rule. In the US, there was resistance to this approach. • In Europe the professions and crafts were tightly regulated; in the US less so.

40. 19th Century American EducationContinued • The American Civil War at mid century was the impetus for large scale industrialization, educational development, and progress in engineering and science. The last half of the century saw development of government, education, health care, transportation and commerce that set the pattern for the 20th century.

41. The 20th Century • The 20th century was dominated by 2 world wars. Among the major effects of these wars was to bring American leadership as a government, industrial, and scientific power. The US was looked to for moral, and cultural leadership. • Movies, music, books, and newspapers brought attention to the US as the paradigm for other nations.

42. The 20th Century • Education as a field of study becomes important. • Educational psychology asserts itself in testing, curriculum, and understanding of the development of children • Universities introduce social sciences and professional education.

43. The 20th Century • Philosophy as a separate field of study begins to wane, in favor of the academic disciplines it had spawned. • Scientific progress is seen as essential to national security and prosperity and becomes an alliance between universities, government and industry

44. The 20th Century • Technology transforms the planet. Electrical energy, internal combustion engines, air transportation, medicines and medical equipment as well as engineering and mining become central to life. • Consumer goods and foods are all mass produced. • The middle class becomes the center of American and European societies.

45. The 20th Century • Communication transforms society through radio, television, telephone and computing. • Books, written materials, movies, and photos are everywhere. • Mass migrations of populations are facilitated.

46. The 20th Century Higher Education in the U.S. • Universities are for the first time seen as the resource for scientific progress, development of science, education and business. • University education becomes the aspiration much of the population. • Discrimination against minority populations is pervasive till the 2nd half of the century • Standards of admission, retention and graduation are informal till after mid century

47. The 20th Century • A hierarchy of educational institutions develops with private elite schools at the top, state and private universities in the middle and bottom. • The Junior College develops to prepare non traditional students for middle and technical level jobs as well as transfer. • The Junior College gives way to the Community College

48. 20th Century • Normal Schools evolve into full universities to train educators. • Small colleges begin to aspire to university status after mid century • WWII is the turning point in the quality of American higher education . • After WWII the G.I. Bill infuses the universities with mature, funded students. Creates a market for advanced degrees.

49. 20th Century • Cold War defense spending turns universities into a vital resource in science and national security. • In the last 3 decades of the century, higher education becomes the focus of social engineering (providing education for traditionally excluded minorities) • Computer revolution changes the way people think, store and share information, and receive instruction.

50. The Present and Future of Higher Education • It is more than difficult to predict events based on circumstances as they seem today. • It is hard to know which information to attend to or what it means. • There are events beyond the horizon that can change every equation. • But…………………..