1 / 52

Thinking, Language, and Intelligence: Exploring Cognitive Processes and Problem Solving

This chapter delves into the fundamentals of thinking, language, and intelligence. It covers the processes underlying reasoning and decision making, problem solving approaches, major obstacles to problem solving, language development, and the use of technology in problem solving.

kimlopez
Télécharger la présentation

Thinking, Language, and Intelligence: Exploring Cognitive Processes and Problem Solving

An Image/Link below is provided (as is) to download presentation Download Policy: Content on the Website is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use and may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author. Content is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use only. Download presentation by click this link. While downloading, if for some reason you are not able to download a presentation, the publisher may have deleted the file from their server. During download, if you can't get a presentation, the file might be deleted by the publisher.

E N D

Presentation Transcript

  1. Chapter 7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

  2. MODULE 21 - Thinking and Reasoning What is thinking? What processes underlie reasoning and decision making? How do people approach and solve problems? What are the major obstacles to problem solving?

  3. Introduction Thinking: People purposefully manipulate mental representations of information

  4. Mental Images: Examining the Mind’s Eye Representations in the mind of an object or event Every sensory modality produces corresponding mental images

  5. Concepts: Categorizing the World Concepts: Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people Prototypes: Highly representative examples of a concept

  6. Reasoning: Making Up Your Mind Algorithm: Rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem Example - a² + b² = c²

  7. Reasoning: Making Up Your Mind Heuristic: Thinking strategy that may lead to a solution but may sometimes lead to errors Representativeness heuristic - Rule one applies when judging people by the: Degree to which they represent a certain category or group of people

  8. Reasoning: Making Up Your Mind Availability heuristic - Judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from memory Familiarity heuristic - Familiar items are seen as superior to those that are unfamiliar

  9. Computers and Problem Solving: Searching for Artificial Intelligence Field that examines how to use technology to: Imitate the outcome of human thinking, problem solving, and creative activities

  10. Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems Well-defined problem - Nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve are clear Ill-defined problem - Nature of the problem and the information needed to solve are unclear

  11. Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems Kinds of problems Arrangement Problems • Require the problem solver to rearrange elements in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion Problems of Inducing Structure • Person must identify the existing relationships among the elements presented and then construct a new relationship among them Transformation Problems • Consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a method for changing the initial state into the goal state

  12. Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems Representing and organizing the problem Depends on the way a problem is phrased, or framed

  13. Production: Generating Solutions Trial and error Complex problem solving often involves the use of heuristics and cognitive shortcuts Means-end analysis: Repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists

  14. Production: Generating Solutions Forming subgoals If solving a subgoal is a step toward the ultimate solution to a problem: Identifying subgoals is an appropriate strategy

  15. Production: Generating Solutions Insight: Sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another Wolfgang Köhler - Exposed chimps to challenging situations

  16. Judgment: Evaluating the Solutions If appropriate heuristics and valid information is relied upon to make decisions: Accurate choices among alternative solutions can be made

  17. Impediments to Solutions: Why Is Problem Solving Such a Problem? Functional fixedness: Tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use Mental set: Tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist

  18. Impediments to Solutions: Why Is Problem Solving Such a Problem? Inaccurate evaluation of solutions Confirmation bias: Tendency to seek out and weight more heavily information that supports one’s initial hypothesis Ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions

  19. Impediments to Solutions: Why Is Problem Solving Such a Problem? Confirmation bias occurs for several reasons Rethinking a problem that appears to be solved already takes extra cognitive effort Greater weight to subsequent information that supports the initial position

  20. Creativity and Problem Solving Creativity: Ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways Divergent thinking: Ability to generate unusual responses to problems Convergent thinking: Produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic Cognitive complexity - Preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns

  21. MODULE 22 - Language How do people use language? How does language develop?

  22. Introduction Language: Communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules

  23. Grammar: Language’s Language Grammar: System of rules that determines how our thoughts can be expressed Phonology: Study of the smallest basic units of speech called phonemes Syntax: Ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form sentences Semantics: Rules governing meanings of words and sentences

  24. Language Development: Developing a Way with Words Babbling (babble): Meaningless speechlike sounds made by children From around the age of 3 months through 1 year “Critical periods” for language

  25. Language Development: Developing a Way with Words Production of language Telegraphic speech: Sentences in which words not critical to the message are left out Overgeneralization: Children apply language rules even when the application results in an error

  26. Language Development: Developing a Way with Words Approaches Learning theory approach: Language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement Nativist approach: Genetically determined, innate mechanism Universal grammar Interactionist approach: Genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances

  27. The Influence of Language on Thinking Linguistic-relativity hypothesis: Notion that language shapes and determine the way: People in a specific culture perceive and understand the world

  28. Do Animals Use Language? Many animals communicate with one another in rudimentary forms Chimps are able to communicate at surprisingly high levels Critics contend that the language animals use lacks: Grammar and complex and novel constructions of human language

  29. MODULE 23 - What is Intelligence What are the different definitions and conceptions of intelligence? What are the major approaches to measuring intelligence, and what do intelligence tests measure? How can the extremes of intelligence be characterized? Are traditional IQ tests culturally biased? To what degree is intelligence influenced by the environment and to what degree by heredity?

  30. Introduction Intelligence Capacity to understand the world Think rationally Use resources effectively when faced with challenges

  31. Theories of Intelligence: Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence? g or g-factor: The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence

  32. Theories of Intelligence: Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence? Fluid intelligence: Intelligence that reflects is the ability to reason abstractly Crystallized intelligence: Accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that: People learn through experience

  33. Theories of Intelligence: Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence? Theory of multiple intelligences Gardner’s intelligence theory Proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence Existential intelligence - Identifying the fundamental questions of human existence

  34. Eight Forms of Intelligence Musical Intelligence Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Linguistic Intelligence

  35. Eight Forms of Intelligence Spatial Intelligence Interpersonal Intelligence Intrapersonal Intelligence Naturalist Intelligence

  36. Theories of Intelligence: Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence? Information-processing approach Way people store material in memory and use that material to solve intellectual tasks Speed of processing

  37. The Biological Basis of Intelligence Lateral prefrontal cortex Managing pieces of information simultaneously Solving new problems Higher intelligence is related to the thickness of the cerebral cortex

  38. Practical Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence Practical intelligence: Related to overall success in living Analytical Creative Emotional intelligence: Set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions

  39. Figure 4 - Major Approaches to Intelligence

  40. Assessing Intelligence Intelligence tests: Devised to quantify and measure intelligence in an objective manner

  41. Binet and the Development of IQ Tests Mental age (MA): Age for which a given level of performance is average Intelligence quotient (IQ): Takes into account an individual’s mental and chronological ages (CA)

  42. Figure 4 -Bell-Shaped Distribution

  43. Contemporary IQ Tests: Gauging Intelligence Stanford-Binet intelligence scale - Consists of a series of items that vary according to the age of the person being tested Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV (WAIS-IV) WISC-IV is for children

  44. Contemporary IQ Tests: Gauging Intelligence WAIS and WISC measure: Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed

  45. Assessing Intelligence Test validity and reliability are prerequisites for accurate assessment of intelligence Reliability: Tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure Validity: Tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure Norms: Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on a test to scores of others Standardized tests

  46. Assessing Intelligence Adaptive testing - Every test-taker does not receive identical sets of test questions The computer individualizes the test to the test-taker

  47. Intellectual Disabilities (Mental Retardation) Disability Mild = IQ of 55 to 69 Moderate =IQ of 40 to 54 Severe = IQ of 25 to 39 Profound = IQ below 25

  48. Identifying the Roots of Mental Retardation Fetal Alcohol Syndrome • Caused by a mother’s use of alcohol while pregnant Down Syndrome • A person is born with 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46 Familial Retardation • No apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of retardation in the family

  49. Mental Retardation Integrating individuals with mental retardation Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (Public Law 94-142) Least restrictive environment Mainstreaming Full inclusion

  50. The Intellectually Gifted Have IQ scores greater than 130 Programs for the gifted are designed to provide enrichment that allows participants’ talents to flourish

More Related