Antiquarian research developed later in Scandinavia than England.

1. http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/ • Antiquarian research developed later in Scandinavia than England. • Followed on the separation of Sweden and Denmark in 1523. • Separation fueled interest in national heritage • Interest in recording and studying rune stones • Rune stones permitted the application of a historical archaeological approach • Ole Worm (1588-1654) Danish medical doctor, best known for his contributions to embryology • Digitized works: http://num-scd-ulp.u-strasbg.fr:8080/view/authors/Worm,_Ole.html • Established a museum, open to the public in 1680s • Johan Bure (1568-1652) Swedish civil servant: also interested in the Rosicrucian Manifestos • OlofRudbeck (1630-1702) taught at a Swedish Antiquaries college. Trenched and drew sections of Viking tumuli at Old Uppsala • Four volume Atlantica argued that Sweden was Atlantis.

2. French historians emphasized the Franks, German-speaking population that post-dated the Romans. • Intense interest in classical marble and little interest in local pre-Roman antiquities. • Paolo Emilio’s (-1529) “Gallic Antiquities” sparked interest in the pre-Roman Gauls. • Due to a lack of fieldwork, interest in Celtic-speaking occupation did not develop until the 1700s. • In Germany, rediscovery of Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus (AD 56-120) stimulated scholarship on the ancient population. • Digital (translated) copy: http://www.archive.org/details/germania00brodgoog • Audio book: http://www.archive.org/details/germania_tacitus_0906_librivox1 • The historical emphasis stimulated interest in material remains. • NicolausMarschalk (1460-1527) compared metalithic alignments and tumuli and attempted to link these to historically recorded ethic groups. • Johan von Eckart (1750) excavated graves and observed some w/o metal, bronze, and stone but no iron, and graves with all three. Attributed these to three phases of development. This followed from ideas laid out by Swiss antiquary Jacques Christophe Iselin. • As early as 1688, Germans were publishing excavation manuals.

3. Common themes among the various nations • Political leaders incorporated archaeological materials into collections of curiosities • Often finds of artistic value were displayed with classical materials imported from Italy and Greece. • Excavations were pursued to find local materials • Laws frequently passed to appropriate finds into royal or national collections. • General lack of schemes for dating materials, typically associated with historic figures. • W/o written inscriptions interpretation was difficult.

4. European colonization led to encounters with hunter-gatherers, and tribal horticulturalists in Americas, Africa, and Pacific. • Variability needed to be explained. • Early interpretations of degeneration: those who wandered furthers from Middle East lost contact with God and degenerated. • Eventually, there was a recognition that encountered peoples used tools similar to those found in European sites. • European scholars first needed to recognize that prehistoric artifacts were of human origin.

5. In 1669, Nicolaus Steno (1638-1686) compared fossil and modern shells. Also drew on ethnographic analogy in interpreting stone tools. • PietroMartired’Anghiera (1457-1526) compared native people of West Indies with classical accounts of a Golden Age. • From the letters of Columbus, Matire describes first contacts in West Indes. • GeorgiusAgricola (1490-1555) suggested stone tools were of human origin. • John Twyne (1505-1581) relied on ancient Greek texts to suggest that northern Europeans had a lifestyle similar to the stone-tool using North American Indians. • Michel Mercati (1541-1593) suggested that chipped stone tools were older than iron. His model based on biblical and classical materials, unfamiliar with ethnographic examples from the New World. • UlisseAldrovandi (1522-1605) suggested that stone tools were of human origin. • Isaac de la Peyrere (1655) suggested that thunderstones were of a pre-Adamite race. • 1656, british antiquary William Dugdale (1605-1686) attributed stone tools to ancient Britons and assigned them to a pre-Iron period • Robert Plot (1640-1696) (Dugdale’s son-in-law) argued that ancient Britons used mostly stone and one could learn about prehistoric stone tools by comparisons to North American Indians. • As late as 1655, Ole Worm continued to assert that stone tools were of celestial origin—even though he had examples from the new world in his collection. • The slow acceptance of new thinking about stone tools reveals how weak the networks of knowledge were. Little sharing between places. • Recognition that stone tools were made by humans did not lead to an evolutionary view. Interpretation tended to remain in a largely diffusionist scheme.

6. Development of an evolutionary view encouraged by transformation in thought that accompanied the new world economy. • Francis Bacon (1561-1626) argues that modern culture superior to classical antiquity. • Bacon encouraged scholars to turn from classical texts and build knowledge through observation, classification and experiment. • 1690s “quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns”: literary and artistic debate in the French Academy. • Optimism about the future fueled by economic growth. Growing faith in progress. • Europeans began to view encountered peoples as survivors of a primordial human condition rather than products of degeneration. • Scottish Enlightenment highly significant:. Key interest in origin of institutions • French Enlightenment more radical and served as inspiration to a wide are, including North America • “We look to Scotland for our idea of civilization” Voltaire

7. Psychic unity of mankind • All human groups were equally perfectible • All could benefit from the civilizing influences of Europe • Progress the dominant feature of human history • Greater control over nature • Progress is not limited to technology, but includes all aspects of life. • Cultural change new viewed as a series of stages. • Henry Home (1696-1782) wrote about savage hunters, barbarian pastoralists, and civilized farmers. Home a teacher of David Hume (empiricist and skeptic) and Adam Smith (economist). • Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, French economist (1750) “A Philosophical Review of the Successive Advances of the Human Mind” • Progress perfects human nature • Elimination of ignorance and a curbing of destructive passions • Progress results from the exercise of rational thought • Humans gain greater ability to control environment, this generates more wealth and leisure. This supports the creation of greater social complexity and a deeper understanding of the world.