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Shift/Reduce and LR(1)

Shift/Reduce and LR(1). Professor Yihjia Tsai Tamkang University. Table-driven parsing. Parsing performed by a finite state machine. Parsing algorithm is language-independent. FSM driven by table (s) generated automatically from grammar.

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Shift/Reduce and LR(1)

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  1. Shift/Reduce and LR(1) Professor Yihjia Tsai Tamkang University

  2. Table-driven parsing • Parsing performed by a finite state machine. • Parsing algorithm is language-independent. • FSM driven by table (s) generated automatically from grammar. • Language generator tables Input parser stack tables

  3. Pushdown Automata • A context-free grammar can be recognized by a finite state machine with a stack: a PDA. • The PDA is defined by set of internal states and a transition table. • The PDA can read the input and read/write on the stack. • The actions of the PDA are determined by its currentstate, the current top of the stack, and the current inputsymbol. • There are three distinguished states: • start state: nothing seen • accept state: sentence complete • error state: current symbol doesn’t belong.

  4. Review: Top-down parsing • Parse tree is synthesized from the root (sentence symbol). • Stack contains symbols of rhs of current production, and pending non-terminals. • Automaton is trivial (no need for explicit states) • Transition table indexed by grammar symbol G and input symbol a. Entries in table are terminals or productions: P ABC…

  5. Top-down parsing • Actions: • initially, stack contains sentence symbol • At each step, let S be symbol on top of stack, and a be the next token on input. • if T (S, a) is terminal a, read token, pop symbol from stack • if T (S, a) is production P ABC…., remove S from stack, push the symbols A, B, C on the stack (A on top). • If S is the sentence symbol and a is the end of file, accept. • If T (S, a) is undefined, signal error. • Semantic action: when starting a production, build tree node for non-terminal, attach to parent.

  6. Table-driven parsing and recursive descent parsing • Recursive descent: every production is a procedure. Call stack holds active procedures corresponding to pending non-terminals. • Stack still needed for context-sensitive legality checks, error messages, etc. • Table-driven parser: recursion simulated with explicit stack.

  7. Building the parse table • Define two functions on the symbols of the grammar: FIRST and FOLLOW. • For a non-terminal N, FIRST (N) is the set of terminal symbols that can start any derivation from N. • First (If_Statement) = {if} • First (Expr) = {id, ( } • FOLLOW (N) is the set of terminals that can appear after a string derived from N: • Follow (Expr) = { +, ), $ }

  8. Computing FIRST (N) • If N e First (N) includes e • if N aABC First (N) includes a • if N X1X2 First (N) includes First (X1) • if N X1X2… and X1 e, • First (N) includes First (X2) • Obvious generalization to First (a) where a is X1X2...

  9. Computing First (N) • Grammar for expressions, without left-recursion: E TE’ | T E’ +TE’ | e T FT’ | F T’ *FT’ | e F id | (E) • First (F) = { id, ( } • First (T’) = { *, e} First (T) = { id, ( } • First (E’) = { +, e} First (E) = { id, ( }

  10. Computing Follow (N) • Follow (N) is computed from productions in which N appears on the rhs • For the sentence symbol S, Follow (S) includes $ • if A a N b, Follow (N) includes First (b) • because an expansion of N will be followed by an expansion from b • if A a N, Follow (N) includes Follow (A) • because N will be expanded in the context in which A is expanded • if A a N B , B e, Follow (N) includes Follow (A)

  11. Computing Follow (N) E TE’ | T E’ +TE’ | e T FT’ | F T’ *FT’ | e F id | (E) • Follow (E) = { ), $ } Follow (E’) = { ), $ } • Follow (T) = First (E’ ) + Follow (E’) = { +, ), $ } • Follow (T’) = Follow (T) = { +, ), $ } • Follow (F) = First (T’) + Follow (T’) = { *, +, ), $ }

  12. Building LL (1) parse tables Table indexed by non-terminal and token. Table entry is a production: for each production P: A aloop for each terminal ain First (a) loop T (A, a) := P; end loop; ifein First (a), then for each terminal b in Follow (a) loop T (A, b) := P; end loop; end if; end loop; • All other entries are errors. • If two assignments conflict, parse table cannot be built.

  13. LL (1) grammars • If table construction is successful, grammar is LL (1): left-to right, leftmost derivation with one-token lookahead. • If construction fails, can conceive of LL (2), etc. • Ambiguous grammars are never LL (k) • If a terminal is in First for two different productions of A, the grammar cannot be LL (1). • Grammars with left-recursion are never LL (k) • Some useful constructs are not LL (k)

  14. Bottom-up parsing • Synthesize tree from fragments • Automaton performs two actions: • shift: push next symbol on stack • reduce: replace symbols on stack • Automaton synthesizes (reduces) when end of a production is recognized • States of automaton encode synthesis so far, and expectation of pending non-terminals • Automaton has potentially large set of states • Technique more general than LL (k)

  15. LR (k) parsing • Left-to-right, rightmost derivation with k-token lookahead. • Most general parsing technique for deterministic grammars. • In general, not practical: tables too large (10^6 states for C++, Ada). • Common subsets: SLR, LALR (1).

  16. LR(k) Parsing Algorithms • This is an efficient class of Bottom-up parsing algorithms. The other bottom-up parsers include operator precedence parsers. • The name LR(k) means: • L - Left-to-right scanning of the input • R - Constructing rightmost derivation in reverse • k - number of input symbols to select a parser action

  17. Yet Another Example • Consider a grammar to generate all palindromes. 1) S--> P 2) P --> a Pa 3) P --> b P b 4) P --> c • LR parsers work with an augmented grammar in which the start symbol never appears in the right side of a production. • In a given grammar, if the start symbol appears in the RHS, we can add a production S’ --> S (S’ is the new start symbol and S was the old start symbol)

  18. Example Cont... STACKINPUT BUFFERACTION $ abcba$ shift $a bcba$ shift $ab cba$ shift $abc ba$ reduce $abP ba$ shift $abPb a$ reduce $aP a$ shift $aPa $ reduce $P $ reduce $S $ accept

  19. LR(0) Parsers • Qn: How to select parser actions (namely shift, reduce, accept and error)? • Ans: • 1) By constructing a DFA that encodes all parser states, and transitions on terminals and nonterminals. The transitions on terminals are the parser actions( also called the action table) and transitions on nonterminals resulting in a new state (also called the goto table). • 2) Keeping a stack to simulate the PDA. This stack maintains the list of states.

  20. LR(0) Items and Closure • LR(0) parser state needs to capture how much of a given production we have scanned . LR(0) parser (like a FSA) needs to know how much the production (on the rhs) we have scanned so far. • For example: in the production: P --> a P a • An LR(0) item is a production with a mark/dot on the RHS. SO the items for this production will be P--> . a P a , P --> a . P a, P --> a P. a, P--> aPa.

  21. Items and Closure Contd • Intuitively, there is a derivation (or we have seen the input symbols) to the left of dot. • Two kinds of items, kernel items and nonkernel items - Kernel and nonkernel items. • Kernel Items - Includes initial item S’ --> .S and all items in which dot does not appear at the left most position. • Nonkernel Items- All other items which have dots at the leftmost position.

  22. Closure of Items • Let I be the set of items. Then Closure (I) consists of the set of items that are constructed as follows: • 1) Every item I is also in the Closure(I) - reflexive • 2 If A a . B b is in Closure(I), and B--> g is production, then add the item B--> .g also in the Closure(I), if it is not already a member. Repeat this until no more items can be added.

  23. Intuition • Closure represents an equivalent state - all the possible ways that you could have reached that state. • Example: I = { S-> .P} • Closure (I) = { S->.P, P->.aPa, P->.bPb, P->.c}

  24. GOTO Operation • Let I be the set of items and let X be a grammar symbol (nonterminal/terminal). Then • GOTO(I,X) = Closure({A--> a X.b | A--> a . X b is in I}) • It is a new set of items by moving a dot over X. Intuitively, we have seen either an input symbol (terminal symbol) or seen a derivation starting with that nonterminal.

  25. Canonical set of Items (states) Enumerate possible states for an LR(0) parser. Each state is a canonical set of items. Algorithm: 1) Start with a canonical set, Closure({S’-->.S}) 2) If I is a canonical set and X is a grammar symbol such that I’=goto(I,X) is nonempty, then make I’ a new canonical set (if it is not already a canonical set). Keep repeating this until no more canonical sets can be created. The algorithm terminates!!.

  26. Example • S0: S--> .P , P --> .a P a, P--> .bP b, P-->.c • S1: S--> P. • S2: P --> a.Pa, P-->.aPa,P-->.bPb,P-->.c • S3:P--> b.P b, P-->.aPa,P-->.bPb,P-->.c • S4: P--> c. • S5: P--> aP.a • S6:P--> bP.b • S7: P--> aPa. • S8: P--> bP b.

  27. Finite State Machine • Draw the FSA. The major difference is that transitions can be both terminal and nonterminal symbols. • The Goto and Action Parts of the parsing table come from the FSA as detailed in Galles on pp 89-92.

  28. Key Idea in Canonical states • If a state contains an item of the form A-> b . , then state prompts a reduce action (provided the correct symbols follow). • If a state contains A--> a . d, then the state prompts the parser to perform a shift action (of course on the right symbols). • If a state contains S’--> S. and there are no more input symbols left, then the parser is prompted to accept. • Else an error message is prompted.

  29. Parsing Table state Input symbol goto a b c $ P 0 s2 s3 s4 2 1. acc 2. s2 s3 s4 5 3. s2 s3 s4 6 4. r3 r3 5. s7 6. s8 7. r1 r1 r1 r1 8. r2 r2 r2 r2

  30. Parsing Table Contd • si means shift the input symbol and goto state I. • rj means reduce by jth production. Note that we are not storing all the items in the state in our table. • example: abcba$ • if we go thru, parsing algorithm, we get

  31. Example Contd • State input action • $S0 abcba$ shift • $S0aS2 bcba$ shift • $S0aS2bS3 cba$ shift • $S0aS2bS3cS4 ba$ reduce

  32. Shift/Reduce Conflicts • An LR(0) state contains a conflict if its canonical set has two items that recommend conflicting actions. • shift/reduce conflict - when one item prompts a shift action, the other prompts a reduce action. • reduce/reduce conflict - when two items prompt for reduce actions by different production. • A grammar is said be to be LR(0) grammar, if the table does not have any conflicts.

  33. Examples • See Figure 3.24 of Appel and associated text • (to be provided)

  34. References • Modern Compiler Implementation in Java, Andrew Appel, Cambridge University Press • Compilers Principles, Techniques and Tools, Aho Sethi Ullman , Addison Wesley

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