On-Line Session 2

1. On-Line Session 2 The Early Roots & Behaviorism EDUC 622 Chapters 2&3 Morrow & Tracey (Content Cited from Lenses on Reading unless otherwise stated) Morrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (2006). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press.

2. Session 2 Objectives In Session 2, you will: • Review Session 1 content • Examine the components of Early Roots theories • Explain specific examples of Unfoldment theory in a literacy classroom • Determine and discuss the relevance of early roots theories and their application in a literacy classroom • Review important aspects of theories within Behaviorism • Determine and discuss how the components of direct instruction apply in a classroom …by reading the slides and completing all activities and assessments presented in Session 2 PPT. Benedictine University

3. Session 1 Review EDUC 622 Benedictine University

4. What is a Theory? According to the American Heritage Dictionary(2001), a theory is “…a set of statements or principles devised to explain a group of facts or phenomena, especially those that have been repeatedly tested or is widely accepted.” Theories are grounded in belief systems, that are often held by large groups of people and typically supported by extensive research and databases Benedictine University

5. Theory: A Definition for Education In the field of education, a theory is a well documented explanation for a phenomenon related to teaching and/or learning This explanation (i.e., theory) then becomes part of the body of content knowledge that constitutes the field In our field, theories are used to explain learning, motivation, memory, achievement, and intelligence, among other things Benedictine University

6. Importance of Theories to Educational Practice Teachers who understand the full range of theories from which instructional strategies are derived can select interventions that best suit a particular teaching situation, thus optimizing the effectiveness of their instruction A broad understanding of theories allows educators to coordinate and provide complementary instructional interventions from a wide variety of theoretical orientations Benedictine University

7. What IS Best Practice? Evidence-based instruction involves teachers making decisions using “…professional wisdom integrated with the best available empirical evidence”(Allington, 2005, p. 16) This definition of evidence-based instruction utilizes the wisdom and evidence derived from professional experience and recognizes the important role of empirical research (Allington, 2005; Pressley, 2007) No singleinvestigation or research study by itself establishes a practice as effective Benedictine University

8. SESSION 2 The Early Roots Early Theories and Models Applicable to Reading (400 B.C. -1899) Chapter 2 -Tracey and Morrow Content Citation from Tracey and Morrow unless otherwise statedMorrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (2006). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press. Benedictine University

9. The Early Theories and Models The Early Theories and Models include: Mental Discipline Theory Associationism Unfoldment Theory Structuralism and Early Scientific Foundations of Reading Benedictine University

10. MENTAL DISCIPLINE THEORY Benedictine University

11. Mental Discipline Theory428 B.C.---322 B.C. and Beyond • This is an example of Plato and Aristotle’s work that has widely permeated educational and psychological literature for approximately 2,500 years, it includes: • The mind lies dormant until it is exercised • Memory, will, reason, and perseverance are the “muscles of the mind” • Learning is a matter of strengthening or disciplining the faculties of the mind, which combine to produce intelligent behavior Benedictine University

12. ASSOCIATIONISM Benedictine University

13. Associationism…4th Century B.C.----18th Century • Is a theory of psychology and education that is devoted to the study of how learning occurs • It examines how events or ideas can become associatedwith one another in the mind, to result in a form of learning • It contains three kinds of connections that aid memory and learning: • Contiguity • Similarity • Contrast Benedictine University

14. Associationism • Contiguity: The ideas that things occurring together in time or space tend to become associated in the mind Example: Brushing one’s teeth, taking a shower, and getting dressed are all ideas that go together with what we do in the morning • Similarity: The idea that people tend to associate things that have similar features and properties Example:If a person were trying to remember a grocery list, one could organize the items according to dairy, produce, breads and meats • Contrast: Association by opposites Example: The concepts of light/dark, high/low, and happy/sad Benedictine University

15. Mental Discipline Theory and Associationism Retained their prominence in educational thought for an unprecedented, and still unequaled, period of time In retrospect, these two theories persisted as the predominant theories of education and learning for approximately 2,000 years from the time of Plato and Aristotle (428-322 B.C.) until the period of Enlightenment in the 18th century Benedictine University

16. Modern AssociationismJohn Locke’s Tabula Rasa Theory John Locke (1632-1704) is one of the most well-known, and relatively modern associationists He directly challenged Modern Discipline Theory with the concept of Tabula Rasa -- “Blank Tablet” Theory Tabula Rasa Theorysuggests that people are born without any internal, innate knowledge In this theory, all learning is a consequence of the individual’s reactions or interactions with the environment Benedictine University

17. Locke’s Work Locke’s work as been credited as a turning point in professional thinking about learning As a result of his theory, attention was turned away from an emphasis regarding the importance of innate knowledge and toward an emphasis on the importance of external influences on learning Benedictine University

18. Locke and Aristotle • Despite their opposing viewpoints, both Locke and Aristotle are considered Associationists because their primary interest was the way by which knowledge is constructed: • Aristotle focused on internal connections • Locke focused on the importance of external information Benedictine University

19. Importance of Associationism • Traveling forward in time, • Associationism laid the groundwork for behaviorism and for models of cognition based on mental connections • As you journey through the theories and models, keep this important point in mind! Benedictine University

20. UNFOLDMENT THEORY Benedictine University

21. Unfoldment Theory 18th Century The first serious challenge to Mental Discipline Theory and Associationismoccurred with Unfoldment Theory It suggests that learning is most facilitated through natural unfolding of the mind based on individual curiosity and interest This shift in educational philosophy mirrored the shift in social philosophy at the time Benedictine University

22. Unfoldment Theory Although the dominant approach in the Age of Enlightenment continued to be the cultivation of rational thought through mental discipline Some thinkers in this period began to advocate cultivating feeling and passion through the development of a naturalunfoldingof personal interests This pointed the way to a new period called Romanticism Benedictine University

23. Unfoldment TheoryRousseau (1712-1778) Rousseau is one of the earliest educational theorists to hold this perspective He wrote an educational novel, Emile, in 1762 about a young boy who is raised in nature, away from the evils of society, and allowed to follow his own curiosities and interests By the novel’s end, Emile develops into an adult of high moral character and goodness as a result of his unique upbringing In accordance with Unfoldment Theory, first presented in this novel, Rosseau suggests several ideas about education Benedictine University

24. Unfoldment TheoryRousseau’s Belief System • Rousseau: • Advocated that educators should follow children’s leads regarding what and when they wanted to learn • Argued that learning would be impeded if children were forced to learn information about which they were not interested • Firmly believed that children’s verbal abilities would be developed as a result of extended and enriched experiences with manipulatives • Believed strongly in the idea that nature should be at the center of learning that he recommended postponing reading and writing instruction until students were 10-15 years old Benedictine University

25. Unfoldment TheoryPestalozzi (1746-1827) Pestalozzi was a Swiss education reformer who was greatly influenced by Rousseau’s beliefs concerning natural learning, but felt that, in addition to “natural unfolding”, children needed informal instruction from adults to facilitate their learning Using these ideas, he created a philosophy of child-centered learning, and built a school to implement his ideas Central to his vision of Unfoldment Theory was his belief that for an educational environment to be effective it must also be warm and nurturing Benedictine University

26. Unfoldment TheoryPestalozzi’s School • Pestalozzi’s school was designed to stimulate children’s natural curiosity for learning by: • A positive affective climate • An engaging physical environment • Instruction based on children’s learning interests • Heavy emphasis on sensory manipulative experiences as foundational for educational growth Benedictine University

27. Unfoldment TheoryRousseau and Pestalozzi’s Influence • Rousseau and Pestalozzi’s influence led to: • The use of familiar objects, pictures, and storylines in early reading materials • Disciples of their thinking who further influenced the educational realm • Froebel (1782-1852) was a disciple who emphasized the importance of play in the development of young children’s learning. Benedictine University

28. Unfoldment TheoryRousseau and Pestalozzi’s Influence on Froebel Froebel specified that realizing the fullest benefits of playing-to-learn required adult guidance and direction and a planned environment He saw the teacher as a designerof activities and experiences that facilitate learning He coined the word kindergartenwhich means children’s garden Benedictine University

29. Sess. 2: Short Answer – Rousseau – Slide 29 Online Time! Individual Activity: Practical Application • Rousseau advocated that educators follow children’s leads regarding what and when they wanted to learn • He argued that learning would be impeded if children were forced to learn information about which they were not interested • Examine your teaching style and your curriculum • Identify 2 relevant examples of how you allow the students in your classroom to “unfold” • As you reflect, pinpoint 2 – 3 specific examples, write a short answer and be ready to debrief your response in Session 3 • Submit your Short Answer to: • Sess. 2: Short Answer – Rousseau – Slide 29 Benedictine University

30. STRUCTURALISM AND EARLY SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATIONS OF READING Benedictine University

31. Early Scientific Foundations of Reading Mental Discipline Theory, Associationism, and Unfoldment Theory were developed as non-experimental, general philosophies that would apply to all areas of education In contrast, the historical roots of the specific study of readingwere embedded within the early history of cognitive psychology, which was situated within an experimental, structuralist, theoretical framework Benedictine University

32. Early History of Reading ResearchStructuralism An Interesting Note Structuralism is usually thought of as the first major school in psychology It explains the structures of the mind through the study of perception Due to this, reading was first studied through perception research designed to explain general psychological functioning rather than to explain reading in and of itself! Benedictine University

33. Early History of Reading Research • Early studies of reading took place within the world’s first psychology laboratory, established in the late 1870’s in Leipzig, Germany by German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) • J.M. Cattell, an American student and Wundt’s assistant, pursued the study of perceptual processes by investigating aspects of the reading process such as: • Letter and Word Recognition • Legibility of Print • Span of Attention Benedictine University

34. Early History of Reading Research Cattell’s findings demonstrated that subjects’ speed for reading: • Words connected in sentenceswas faster than their speed for reading disconnected words • Letters connected in words were faster than their speed for reading disconnected letters • Unfortunately, these findings were not investigated or fully understood until the 1950’s Benedictine University

35. Early History of Reading Research • In the late 1870’s and early 1880’s, Javal was conducting early reading research by studying eye movements at the University of Paris • His major contribution was identifying and naming the “saccade” • Saccades are the quick multiple movements that the eye makes as it moves between ‘fixations’ or the ‘pauses’ the eye makes to visually process information • The process of eye movements during reading occurs in small jumps (saccades) and pauses (fixations) are not smooth, progressive, or linear movements as once thought • Previously, eye movements were presumed to be steady, continuous, and flowing during the reading process Benedictine University

36. Early History of Reading Research Summary Contributions continued in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s: • Three major summaries in cognitive processing theories, often referred to as “psychology of reading”, were published during this period • Psychologists focused on reading as a perceptual process, their primary focus was: • Measuring the perception of print (single letters, words) through reaction time studies or • On areas such as eye-voice span, speed of reading, and lip movements during silent reading • Within these lines of research, virtually no attention was paid to whether or not the readers had comprehended the text Benedictine University

37. How Can I Apply These Theories in My Classroom? Benedictine University

38. Classroom Applications There are several ways that these theories are demonstrated in classroom situations: • Mental Discipline Theory– Every time teachers’ engage in strengthening students’ skills through practice, it is present • Mental Discipline Theory is highly visible in: • Spelling and vocabulary instruction • Sight word identification • The use of context clues • One current practice in literary instruction is Repeated Reading • During repeated reading, students read passages aloud repeatedly and the teacher responds with feedback and guidance for further improvement in the areas of pronunciation, expression, and pace • A basic premise of the repeated readingtheory, as with a muscle, the reading process needs to be exercised to be strengthened Benedictine University

39. Classroom Applications • Associationism: It is imperative to build prior knowledge, so this can be accomplished by using various reading strategies that include: • Brainstorming • Webbing Activities • Anticipation Guides • Unfoldment Theory: In order to facilitate children’s authentic engagement with a wide variety of literacy materials, one may create: • Literacy Centers Benedictine University

40. Classroom Applications • Structuralism– Classroom instructional practices that support students’ increased accuracy regarding print perception are utilized in accordance with this theory • One may utilize the following methods in order to assist students with accuracy: • Using a pointer or a flashlight on a word wall • Using different colors to draw students’ attention to varying aspects of print • Examples of tools that help student reading accuracy are: • Intellitalksoftware allows students to highlight words and audio technology allows words to be “read” to students • See-n-Read® Reading Tools allow students to focus on the line of text being read without losing their place Benedictine University

41. How Are These Theories Utilized in Research? Benedictine University

42. Research Applications Theory Relation • Current literacy research also reflects these theories in various ways • Practice effects are often noticed in studies that involve: • Oral language development • Phonemic awareness • Exposure to print • Experience with storybook reading • Skill practice activities Benedictine University

43. Research ApplicationsAssociationism • Associationismprovides the foundation for two branches of psychology that eventually emerged in the 1950s: • Cognitive Psychology • Behaviorism • As a result, any educational or psychological study conducted within these two very broad frameworks could ultimately link its theoretical framework back to Associationism Benedictine University

44. Research ApplicationsAssociationism • Among many areas of reading study that could conceivably be situated in an associationisttheoretical context are those of: • Metacognition • Reading Think-Alouds • Schema Building • Schema Activation • Comprehension Activities such as: • Venn Diagrams • KWL charts • Story Mapping Benedictine University

45. Research ApplicationsUnfoldment Theory • Research into the practice of literacy centers demonstrates the following results in students: • Increased enjoyment of reading and writing • Improved skills in print recognition • Phonemic awareness • Phonics • Reading comprehension • Vocabulary development • Oral reading fluency • Writing Benedictine University

46. Sess. 2: Large Group Threaded Discussion–Slide 46 Online Time! • Please respond to the initial question/s and to a minimum of two other Threaded Discussion entries Large Group Activity: • Click on the “Sess. 2: Large Group Threaded Discussion– Slide 46” • Participate in a Large Group Threaded Discussion based on the content from Slides 12- 45 (Chapter 2). Focus your discussion on the following questions: • How have early roots theories influenced your teaching methods or curriculum? • Provide an example from your classroom when mental discipline theory, associationism, unfoldment theory or structuralism impacted your instruction. • In your opinion, are these methods still relevant and would they fit into best practice instruction? Why or why not? • What are the possible drawbacks of using “dated” methods? • Provide rationale for your example and your thoughts • Be prepared to discuss and debrief these questions at the beginning of Session 3 Benedictine University 46

47. The Next Chapter…. ‘Behaviorism’ Dominant Educational Theory for 50 Years (1900-1950s) Chapter 3 – Tracey and Morrow Content Citation from Tracey and Morrow unless otherwise stated Morrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (2006). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press. Benedictine University

48. What is Behaviorism? • Behaviorism is a theoretical perspective on learning that focuses on observable changes in behavior • From a behavioral perspective, the outcome of learning is an observable change in behavior Two Underlying Assumptions: • Behavior is the result of an organisms, or persons, response to stimuli • External stimuli can be manipulated to strengthen or reduce an organism’s or an individual’s behavior Benedictine University

49. BehaviorismThree Major Behavioral Theories • Behaviorism changed the depiction of reading from one of perceptual processing to one of reading as a behaviorcomposed of isolated skills, each of which could be reinforced to increase student achievement • It continues to be significant today as the theoretical underpinning associated with direct instruction • It is important to note that within Behaviorism three theoretical perspectives (grounded in Associationism) are prominent: • Classical Conditioning Theory: Ivan Pavlov • Connectionism: Edward Thorndike • Operant Conditioning Theory: B.F. Skinner Benedictine University

50. Classical Conditioning Theory Benedictine University