AQA Examinations A Level Sport and Physical Education A 6581 Module 4 part B

1. AQA ExaminationsA Level Sport and Physical EducationA 6581 Module 4 part B Physiological, Biomechanical and Psychological Factors which Optimise Performance

2. 25 - MEASUREMENT OF STRESS QUESTIONNAIRES / BEHAVIOURAL / PHYSIOLOGICAL 26 - RELAXATION TECHNIQUES IMAGERY / PROGRESSIVE RELAXATION TRAINING (PRT) CENTRING / SELF-DIRECTED RELAXATION TRAINING 27 - STRESS CONTROL TECHNIQUES COGNITIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT BIOFEEDBACK / SELF-TALK 28 - MENTAL PREPARATION FOR PERFORMANCE MENTAL REHEARSAL / GOAL SETTING 29 - SELF-CONFIDENCE AND SELF-EFFICACY 30 - SELF-CONFIDENCE - CONFIDENCE 31 - SELF-CONFIDENCE OVERCONFIDENCE / FALSE CONFIDENCE 32 - THE ROLE OF THE COACH 33 - SELF-EFFICACY - BANDURA’S MODEL VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES 34 - SELF-EFFICACY - BANDURA’S MODEL VERBAL PERSUASION 35 - SELF-CONFIDENCE - WEINBERG’S MODEL 36 - VEALEY’s MODEL OF SPORT CONFIDENCE 37 - LEARNED HELPLESSNESS (LH) GLOBAL / SPECIFIC LH - ATTRIBUTION RETRAINING 38 - THE SELF-CONCEPT - SELF-ESTEEM 39 - ATTRIBUTION - WEINER’S MODEL LOCUS OF CAUSALITY / STABILITY / CONTROLLABILITY 40 - DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION PERSONAL / SITUATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS 41 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH) / AVOID FAILURE (NAF) 42 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION PERSONALITY COMPONENTS 43 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS Index 3 - AROUSAL - RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM 4 - AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY 5 - INVERTED U THEORY THE POSITION OF OPTIMUM AROUSAL 6 - AROUSAL CURVES - EXAMPLES 7 - CATASTROPHE THEORY 8 - TASK DIFFERENCES - OPTIMUM AROUSAL 9 - TASK DIFFERENCES COMPLEX / SKILFULLY DIFFICULT - SIMPLE / GROSS TASKS 10 - ATTENTION SELECTIVE ATTENTION / ATTENTIONAL NARROWING 11 - PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION 12 - CONCENTRATION - CUE UTILISATION USE OF COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES TO ASSIST CONCENTRATION 13 - CONCENTRATION AND ATTENTIONAL STYLES NIDEFFER - BROAD / NARROW / INTERNAL / EXTERNAL 14 - ANXIETY TRAIT / STATE ANXIETY - A TRAIT / STATE 15 - THE EFFECT OF AUDIENCE AROUSAL CAUSED BY AUDIENCE EVALUATION DEVELOPMENT OF A CORRECT DOMINANT RESPONSE 16 - THE DISTRACTION EFFECT 17 - STRESS AND STRESSORS 18 - STRESSORS 19 - GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME 20 - PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS - EXTERNAL - THE SITUATION INTERNAL / COMPETITIVE ORIENTATION 21 - EUSTRESS 22 - EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCE INHIBITION / PERFORMANCE OF SKILLS / CONCENTRATION 23 - SYMPTOMS OF STRESS PHYSIOLOGICAL / PSYCHOLOGICAL / BEHAVIOURAL 24 - THE MANAGEMENT OF STRESS INDEX

3. RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM RAS is a system within the brain which causes arousal extroverts have lower levels of intrinsic arousal than introverts hence extroverts seek situations of high arousal introverts seek low arousal situations Arousal AROUSAL a state of mental and physical preparedness for action this is the level of inner drives which forces the sportsperson to strive to achieve it needs to be under control and at the right level depending on the task a faster heart rate faster breathing rate sweating ability to focus (concentrate) response to danger AROUSAL

4. WITH INCREASED AROUSAL the dominant habit / most usual behaviour will be reproduced a poorly-learned skill will give a performance full of mistakes a well-learned skill will give a skilled performance Arousal AROUSAL AND DRIVE THEORY DRIVE THEORY • the higher the arousal level • the higher the achievement / performance level • the more likely that a well-learned skill (a dominant response) will be produced

5. INVERTED U THEORY THE POSITION OF OPTIMUM AROUSAL DEPENDS ON type of activity / task complexity gross skills (weight lifting) require high arousal fine skills (snooker) require low arousal skill level of the performer the more skilful the performer the higher the optimum arousal could be personality of the performer the more extrovert the performer the higher the arousal likely for optimum performance Arousal INVERTED U THEORY • there is an optimum arousal level • if aroused more than this • performance will decline

6. BEST PERFORMANCE Sam’s performance has the highest level Arousal AROUSAL CURVES PSYCHING UP • Jon’s best performance takes place at the highest arousal level • he needs to psych himself up the most to achieve optimum performance CONTROLLED AROUSAL • Ted’s best performance takes place between a narrow range of arousal levels • therefore arousal needs to be carefully controlled

7. CATASTROPHE THEORY here performance increases as arousal increases but if arousal gets too high a complete loss of performance occurs Arousal CATASTROPHE THEORY • example : the golfer who tries too hard and completely misses the fairway from his drive at the 18th hole when in a winning position • example : the gymnast who completely messes up her previously well-executed routine in a national final • anxiety affects arousal

8. OPTIMUM AROUSAL can be identified can be controlled by successful performers depends on circumstances personalities whether tasks are simple or complex fine or gross strength or endurance information processing whether the performer directs attention concentrates narrows attention to the specific task Arousal - Tasks TASK DIFFERENCES

9. COMPLEX / SKILFULLY DIFFICULT TASKS fine, delicate and highly controlled or information processing tasks high arousal interferes with task sometimes very low arousal is required (calmness) close control required narrow band of arousal best Arousal - Tasks TASK DIFFERENCES SIMPLE / GROSS TASKS • easy / large basic movements / strength or endurance tasks • bigger margin for error • broader optimal arousal zone • tolerate bigger arousal levels before performance falls

10. Attention ATTENTION ATTENTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION • relates to the amount of information we can cope with • since the amount of information we can attend to is limited • we have limited attentional capacity • the performer must therefore attend to only relevant information • and disregard irrelevant information • this is called selective attention ATTENTIONAL NARROWING AND CONCENTRATION • when some parts of a performance become automatic • the information relevant to those parts does not require attention • this gives the performer spare attentional capacity • which allows the performer to attend to new elements of a skill • such as tactics or anticipating the moves of an opponent • the coach will need to help the performer to make best use of spare attentional capacity • the coach will also need to direct the attention of the performer to enable him / her to concentrate and reduce the chance of attentional switching to irrelevant information or distractions

11. Selective Attention PERCEPTION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION PERCEPTION • perception is stimulus identification • as information is received from the environment, the performer needs to make sense of it • to interpret it and identify the elements which are relevant and important • consists of three elements : • detection • comparison • recognition SELECTIVE ATTENTION • the process of sorting out relevant bits of information from the many which are received • attention passes the information to the short-term memory which gives time for conscious analysis • a good performer can focus totally on an important aspect of his / her skill • which can exclude other elements which may also be desirable • sometimes a performer may desire to concentrate on several different things at once

12. CONCENTRATION a state of mind in which attention is directed towards a specific aim or activity attentional focus control of attention towards a task CUE UTILISATION cues can be used by the sportaperson to direct attention to trigger appropriate arousal responses to enable attentional focus at a relevant moment sometimes, narrowingof attentional focus by an aroused player will cause lack of awareness of broader play issues USE OF COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES TO ASSIST CONCENTRATION imagery mental rehearsal relaxation can be used to direct the sportsperson’s mind towards a specific task these techniques can be thought to manage the stress of the situation to manage anxiety in a productive way Concentration CONCENTRATION

13. NIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL STYLES BROAD a player concentrates on the whole game all players’ positions and movements open skills NARROW the player concentrates on one aspect of the game the goalkeeper closed skills INTERNAL the player decides to concentrate on his own technique EXTERNAL the player focuses on the position of his opposite number Concentration CONCENTRATION AND ATTENTIONAL STYLES

14. ANXIETY an emotional state similar to fear associated with physiological (somatic) arousal psychological (cognitive) arousal feelings of nervousness feelings of apprehension Anxiety STATE ANXIETY - A STATE an emotional response to a particular situation characterised by feelings of nervousness and apprehension often temporary ANXIETY TRAIT ANXIETY - A TRAIT • an inbuilt (trait) part of the personality • a tendency to be fearful of unfamiliar situations • a tendency to perceive competitive situations as threatening • a tendency to respond to competitive situations with apprehension and tension

15. AROUSAL CAUSED BY AUDIENCE EVALUATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF A CORRECT DOMINANT RESPONSE audience evaluation causes arousal if a skill is poorly learnt (early in the learning curve) then arousal causes incorrect response because incorrect response is dominant Arousal and Audience THE EFFECT OF AUDIENCE • if a skill is well-learnt (later in the learning curve) • then arousal causes correct response • because the correct response is dominant • look at inverted U theory for connection between arousal and performance

16. DISTRACTION is an aspect of concentration (or lack of concentration) attentional focus is very important for the effective sportsperson if this is disrupted then he / she is distracted from his / her task audience and evaluation apprehension can act as a distraction the sportsperson needs therefore to practise in distracting circumstances and practise switching attentional focus when faced with potentially distracting circumstances Attention THE DISTRACTION EFFECT

17. STRESS a response of the body to any demands made on it symptoms of stress physiological psychological behavioural Emotional Control STRESS AND STRESSORS

18. STRESSORS social disapproval of parents / peers rejection by peers / parents isolation from normal social interactions chemical / biochemical harm by ingestion of substances bacterial illness caused by micro-organisms physical injury / pain / exhaustion climatic extremes of weather hot weather for endurance activities rain and cold on bare skin psychological mismatch between perception of demands of task and ability to cope Emotional Control STRESSORS

19. homeostasis = the process of establishing body equilibrium in its functions well-being Emotional Control GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

20. EXTERNAL - THE SITUATION perception of the demands of the situation example : I’ve got to run a PB to win INTERNAL perception of the performer’s ability to cope example : I got a terribly slow start last time COMPETITIVE ORIENTATION perception of the importance of the situation example : there’s a gold medal hanging on this Emotional Control PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS

21. EUSTRESS a type of stress with a positive effect the performer actively seeks the thrill of the danger and enjoys the excitement and feeling of satisfaction when it is over examples : bungy jumping free rock climbing extreme sport skiing ultra high diving ‘I like an unforgiving situation where if you make a mistake you suffer for it’ Emotional Control EUSTRESS

22. INHIBITION inhibition of performance PERFORMANCE OF SKILLS stress may act directly on the information processing of skill motor elements of skill are performed less well muscles tense muscular control is reduced CONCENTRATION concentration is difficult span of attention is narrowed STRESS awareness of being under stress itself acts as a stressor Emotional Control EFFECT OF STRESS ON PERFORMANCE

23. PHYSIOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS increased heart rate increased blood pressure increased sweating increased breathing rate decreased flow of blood to the skin increased oxygen uptake dry mouth PSYCHLOGICAL SYMPTOMS worry feeling overwhelmed inability to make decisions inability to concentrate inability to direct attention appropriately narrowing of attention feeling out of control BEHAVIOURAL SYMPTOMS rapid talking nail biting pacing scowling yawning trembling raised voice pitch frequent urination Emotional Control SYMPTOMS OF STRESS

24. Emotional Control THE MANAGEMENT OF STRESS

25. QUESTIONNAIRES Marten’s Sport Competitive Anxiety Test (SCAT) measures emotional and physiological responses to stress in the competitive situation Speilberger’s State, Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) measures emotional and physiological responses to stress in general and specific situations BEHAVIOURAL MEASURES the performance of sports players is observed a subjective method PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES require laboratory testing equipment, objective methods examples : galvanic skin response electrocardiogram electroencephalogram Stress and Anxiety MEASUREMENT OF STRESS

26. IMAGERY RELAXATION think of a place with associations of warmth and relaxation imagine the activity or technique practise in non-stressful situations use prior to competition PROGRESSIVE RELAXATION TRAINING (PRT) learn to tense then deeply relax separate muscle groups CENTRING control of physiological symptoms of stress by focusing on control of the diaphragm and deep breathing SELF-DIRECTED RELAXATION TRAINING focus on each of the major muscle groups in turn allow breathing to become slow and easy visualise the tension flowing out of a muscle group until completely relaxed eventually combine muscle groups and achieve total relaxation quickly Control of Stress RELAXATION TECHNIQUES

27. BIOFEEDBACK monitor skin temperature cold if stressed warm if unstressed galvanic skin response electrical conductivity of skin increases when moist tense muscle cause sweating electromygraphy electrodes taped to specific muscles can detect electrical activity hence tension in muscle SELF-TALK talking through the process of a competitive situation talking positively, building self-confidence Control of Stress COGNITIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT control of emotions and thought processes linked to attributions eliminate negative feelings develop self-confidence STRESS CONTROL TECHNIQUES

28. MENTAL REHEARSAL consciously imagine a performance rerun a past experience preview hope-for success helps concentration helps focus on strengths and weaknesses positive effect on skill learning but not as good as actual practice GOAL SETTING success is more likely because : learning is focused uncertainty is reduced confidence is increased practice is planned and structured evaluation and feedback are specific Emotional Control MENTAL PREPARATION FOR PERFORMANCE

29. SELF-CONFIDENCE SELF-EFFICACY Self-Confidence and Self-Efficicacy SELF-CONFIDENCE AND SELF-EFFICACY

30. CONFIDENCE Self-Confidence and Self-Efficicacy SELF-CONFIDENCE • arouses positive emotions • allows the athlete to • remain calm under pressure • be assertive when required • facilitates concentration • enables focus on the important aspects of a task • enables the setting of challenging but realistic goals • increases effort • affects game strategies • a confident player plays to win even if it means taking risks • affects psychological momentum • a confident athlete take each point or play at a time • and never gives up • even when defeat is imminent

31. OVERCONFIDENCE OR FALSE CONFIDENCE is dangerous because it can lead to inadequate preparation low motivation low arousal which are difficult to correct when competition is under way Self-Confidence and Self-Efficicacy SELF-CONFIDENCE LACK OF CONFIDENCE • causes stress under pressure • causes concentration on outside stressors • mistakes • spectators • causes the setting of goals which are either too easy or too hard • causes the athlete to try to avoid mistakes • non-confident athletes find it difficult to reverse negative psychological momentum • once things start to go wrong • it is difficult to think positively

32. ROLE OF THE COACH develop self-confidence and self-efficacy through successful achievement ensure early and continued success by careful selection of goals tasks levels of competition focusing on successful personal performance not on winning Self-Confidence and Self-Efficicacy THE ROLE OF THE COACH

33. VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES consist of what has been observed in others performing a similar skill example : observing another player in your team dribbling a soccer ball if the model is of similar age / ability and is successful then this may lead to greater self-efficacy Self-Confidence and Self-Efficicacy SELF-EFFICACY - BANDURA’S MODEL PERFORMANCE ACCOMPLISHMENTS • consist of past experiences • example : previously performed skill at dribbling a soccer ball • if this is successful • then this leads to greater self-efficacy • at this particular task • in the future

34. VERBAL PERSUASION encouragement can lead to greater self-efficacy if the person giving encouragement is of high status compared with the performer Self-Confidence and Self-Efficicacy SELF-EFFICACY - BANDURA’S MODEL EMOTIONAL AROUSAL • if arousal is too high • state anxiety - A-state • this could lead to low self-efficacy • mental rehearsal / physical relaxation could • lead to greater confidence • and a calmer approach

35. WEINBERG’S MODEL of developing self-confidence Self-Confidence and Self-Efficicacy SELF-CONFIDENCE

36. Self-Confidence and Self-Efficicacy VEALEY’s MODEL OF SPORT CONFIDENCE VEALEY’S MODEL trait sport confidence • the usual level of self-confidence • example : a discus thrower is generally confident about making a throw competitive orientation • the perceived opportunity to achieve a sport performance • example : the discus thrower is motivated by a national championships to throw well state sport confidence • the level of self confidence related to a specific situation • example : the discus thrower feels confident because the wind is in the right direction

37. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS a belief acquired over time that one has no control over events that failure is inevitable a feeling of hopelessness GLOBAL LH a person attributes failure to internal / stable factors applied to all sports ‘I am useless at all sports’ SPECIFIC LH a person attributes difficulties to internal / stable factors applied to one specific sport ‘I am good at soccer but hopeless at racquet games’ ATTRIBUTION RETRAINING low achievers need to learn to attribute success and failure to the same reasons as high achievers success to stable factors failure to unstable factors Learned Helplessness LEARNED HELPLESSNESS (LH)

38. The SELF-CONCEPT is the descriptive picture we have of ourselves including : physical attributes attitudes abilities roles emotions representing how we see ourselves which may not reflect reality or the way others see us SELF-ESTEEM the extent to which we value ourselves this may or may not match up to the expectations of others example : player may take pride in an ability to tackle hard the referee may see this as unnecessary aggression Self Concept and Self Esteem THE SELF-CONCEPT

39. ATTRIBUTION the process of giving reasons for behaviour and ascribing causes for events example : the player played badly today because the weather was poor WEINER’S MODEL has four attributions : ability effort task difficulty luck arranged in two dimensions : LOCUS OF CAUSALITY STABILITY with a possible third dimension : CONTROLLABILITY more on attribution later Attribution Theory ATTRIBUTION

40. MOTIVATION IS A COMBINATION OF personal characteristics situational aspects MOTIVATION IS HIGHEST WHEN the performer is keen to participate the performer is keen to learn the performer is keen to perform the performer is keen to perform effectively when the motivational climate is right when the training programme is interesting and varied MOTIVATION IS REDUCED BY routine competitionbetween motives PEOPLE have multiple motives share motives have unique motivational profiles need variation in training and competition need variation in intensity and competitiveness need structured coaching and teaching environments MOTIVES CHANGE OVER TIME TEACHERS AND COACHES ARE IMPORTANT MOTIVATORS Motivation DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION

41. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION the drive to achieve success for its own sake related to competitiveness persistence striving for perfection influenced by personality factors need to achieve need to avoid failure situational factors probability of success incentive value of success NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH) Tendency to approach success (Ts) this personality type likes a challenge likes feedback is not afraid of failure has high task persistence NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF) Tendency to avoid failure (Taf) this personality type avoids challenges does not take risks often gives up does not want feedback Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

42. A = someone with a high need to achieve will probably have a low need to avoid failure will choose difficult or demanding tasks which are more risky the hard route up a rock face Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS B = • someone with a high need to avoid failure • will probably have a low need to achieve • will choose tasks which are less risky and more easily achieved • the easy route up the rock face

43. A = probability of success low (competing against the world champion) therefore strive very hard to win (incentive high) (will be highly chuffed if win) Motivation ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS B = • probability of success high • (competing in local club match) • therefore don’t need to try as hard to win • (incentive low) • (and expect to win easily) • (not so pleasing)