Chapter 14 Reform and Renewal in the Christian Church

1. Cover Slide

2. The Protestant Reformation In the 1500s, calls for reform unleashed forces that would shatter Christian unity. The movement is known as the Protestant Reformation. People who joined the movement for reform called themselves Protestants, for those who �protested� papal authority.

3. Abuses in the Church Beginning in the late Middle Ages, the Church had become increasingly caught up in worldly affairs. Popes competed with Italian princes for political power. Popes fought long wars to protect the Papal States against invaders. Some clergy promoted the sale of indulgences. Popes led lavish lifestyles and spent a great deal of money on the arts. The Church increased fees for services such as weddings and baptisms to finance worldly projects.

4. The Condition of the Church (ca 1400�1517) Signs of Disorder Clerical immorality - priests frequently violated their vows of celibacy. They were also accused of drunkenness, gambling, and other vices. Clerical ignorance - many priests could barely read or write. They were less educated than most educated laity. Clerical absenteeism and pluralism - especially in higher-level Church officials who were often absent from their sees. Many held more than one office at a time, and some had bought their offices. Many Italian officials in Rome held benefices in England, France, or Germany, drawing income there from, but doing little for their sees. Upper levels of the Church hierarchy were dominated by aristocrats who lived well.

5. Benefices, Pluralism and Simony Under pre-Reformation Cannon Law Benefices came to mean an income enjoyed � often linked to some land administered � by a priest in chief of an ecclesiastical office. Over time, the benefice system was abused throughout Europe. As benefices came to priests due to feudal patronage and political considerations, priests occasionally held more than one benefice, called pluralism. This pluralism quite often resulted in absenteeism, where the priest would not take care of his benefice. Pluralism was often seen as a good investment for a family that could afford to buy a position (Simony) for a younger son or other prot�g�. The position would allow the family to curry favor in the Church and serve to guarantee a future for the appointee.

6. St. Sebastian and the Plague-stricken

7. The Condition of the Church (ca 1400�1517) Signs of Vitality In Holland the Brethren of the Common Life lived simply, aided the poor, and taught in local schools. An example of pre-reformation church reform Church attendance and church donations remained high. Pope Julius II summoned an ecumenical council to discuss Church reform (1512�1517).

8. Lieferinxe, Pilgrims at the Tomb of St. Sebastian

9. Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism Luther�s Early Years Luther was a conscientious friar, but observance of the religious routine did not bring him a sense of security in salvation. Eventually he concluded that only simple faith in Christ led to salvation.

10. The Teachings of Martin Luther Salvation is achieved through faith alone. Luther rejected Church doctrine that good deeds were necessary for salvation. Doctrine of Indulgences does not agree in this The Bible is the sole source of religious truth. Luther denied other authorities, such as Church councils or the pope. All Christians have equal access to God through faith and the Bible. Luther rejected the idea that priests and Church officials had special powers.

11. Luther and his wife Katherine

12. Cranach, Luther and the Wittenberg Reformers

13. The Ninety-five Theses In Luther�s home of Wittenburg in 1517 the Church was selling indulgences to raise money for the construction of St. Peter�s Basilica in Rome By the 1500s common people believed that when they purchased an indulgence, they were purchasing from the Church full remission of penalties for sin. Luther rejected the notion that good works, such as donating money to the Church through an indulgence, could lead to salvation. He was disturbed that Church friars were misleading the common people and wrote to his archbishop in protest. Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism

14. Matthias Gerung, Folly of Indulgences

15. Cranach, True Church and False

16. The Ninety-five Theses In 1519 Luther challenged the authority of the Pope (and of a general church council) in public debate. He was excommunicated. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V declared Luther an outlaw. Demanded that he appear before the Diet of Worms Duke Frederick of Saxony sheltered him. Ulrich Zwingli, a Swiss priest, joined the Reformation in 1519, denouncing indulgences, monasticism, Mass and celibacy. Like Luther, Zwingli insisted the laity should read the Bible. Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism

17. Coronation of Charles V in Bologna

18. Protestant Thought Luther maintained that God�s grace alone, without any element of individual good works, saved people. Luther held that religious authority resided in Scripture alone, not Scripture in combination with traditional Church teachings. Luther asserted that the Church consisted of the whole community of believers, not just the clergy. Luther emphasized the invisible Church of all believers, not the visible hierarchy culminating in the Pope. Luther argued that there were only three, not seven, sacraments - baptism, penance, and the Eucharist. Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism

19. Everyday Holy Household

20. Protestant Thought The Catholic Church claimed transubstantiation - that is, that the bread and wine of the Eucharist literally became Christ�s body and blood�but Luther disagreed. Luther argued for consubstantiation - that Christ was really present in the host in spirit, but that the bread and wine were not transformed. Zwingli argued that the Eucharist was a memorial of the Last Supper and nothing more. John Calvin believed with Luther in consubstantiation. Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism

21. The Social Impact of Luther�s Beliefs Even before Luther city governments in Germany had been expressing resentment of clerical privilege and immunities. Even before Luther town burghers, disgusted with the poor quality of priestly teaching, had endowed preacherships to support good preachers. Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism

22. The Social Impact of Luther�s Beliefs Luther�s writing that �a Christian man is the most free lord of all� contributed to peasant unrest in Germany. Following crop failures in 1523 and 1524, Swabian peasants in 1525 listed Grievances through the Twelve Articles and demanded an end to death taxes, new rents, and noble seizure of village common lands. Luther initially backed the peasants. Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism

23. Summary of the Twelve Articles of the Peasants in Swabia, 1525 The right of each community to choose and depose its own pastor An end to the small tithes of cattle for lay and ecclesiastical lords. Release from serfdom. Free access to fish and game. Free access to firewood as needed. An investigation of excessive tenural services. Strict observance by the lords of the agreements made with their servants. New rent assessments, based on equity and justice. The basing of legal judgments, that is, punishments, on customary law rather than on constantly appearing arbitrary new laws. The return of expropriated common fields. Abolition of the death tax. The Bible and "divine law" justifies these demands. Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism

24. Luther�s ideas spread quickly in northern Germany and Scandinavia. Many clergy saw Luther�s reforms as the answer to Church corruption. German princes hoped to throw off the rule of both the Church and the Holy Roman emperor. Germans supported Luther because of feelings of national loyalty. Peasants hoped that Luther would support social and economic change.

25. The Social Impact of Luther�s Beliefs When the peasants turned to violence, however, Luther egged the lords on as they crushed the rebellions. Lutheranism came to exalt the state and subordinate church to the secular rulers. Luther owed his success to the printing press, which helped him to spread his message, and to his own rhetorical skill. Luther�s claim that all vocations have equal merit, the Protestant rejection of monasticism and celibacy, the insistence that all laity (including women) should read the Bible, and Luther�s acceptance of sexual desire (within marriage) all contributed to some improvement in women�s circumstances. Martin Luther and the Birth of Protestantism

26. Peasant Freedom

27. Map: Reform in Germany, 1517-1555

28. Germany and the Protestant Reformation The Rise of the Habsburg Dynasty In 1477 the marriage of Maximilian I of the House of Habsburg and Mary of Burgundy united the Austrian Empire with Burgundy and the Netherlands, making the Habsburgs the strongest ruling family in the Holy Roman (German) Empire. The Habsburg Charles V (1500�1558) inherited Spain, and Spanish possessions in Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia, in addition to the lands mentioned above. In 1519 Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor. He believed that it was his duty to maintain the unity of Christendom.

29. Map: The Global Empire of Charles V

30. Germany and the Protestant Reformation The Rise of the Habsburg Dynasty Many German princes converted to Lutheranism because it allowed them to seize Church property. Charles V focused his attention elsewhere, and he needed the help of Protestant princes�for example, to fight off the Turkish attack on Vienna in 1529. In the Peace of Augsburg (1555) Charles accepted the religious status quo in Germany. People of Germany became either Lutheran or Catholic depending on the preference of their prince.

31. Augsburg Confession

32. The Growth of the Protestant Reformation Calvinism Much of northern Europe broke with the Roman Church by 1555. Calvinism was the most important new form of Protestantism. Proceeding from the idea of God�s absolute sovereignty and his omnipotence, the founder of Calvinism, John Calvin, concluded that human beings could do nothing to save themselves. God decided at the beginning of time who would be saved and who would not (predestination). Predestination did not lead to fatalism. Rather, Calvinists, convinced they were saved, were ready to endure great hardship in the struggle against evil. Calvin and the city government of Geneva attempted to regulate people�s conduct in order to create a godly city on earth. Card playing, dancing, and so on were banned. The Genevan government (Hated dissent and would not tolerate it) prosecuted heretics, burning fifty-eight at the stake between 1542 and 1546, including the Spanish heretic Servetus. The Calvinist ethic of �the calling� glorified all vocations as pleasing to God. This doctrine encouraged hard work and vigorous activism.

33. The most important Protestant reformer to follow Martin Luther was John Calvin. Calvin followed most of the teachings of Martin Luther. He also preached predestination, the idea that God had long ago determined who would gain salvation. Made Calvinists confident of their salvation In 1541, Calvin set up a theocracy in Geneva. A theocracy is a government run by Church leaders. Religion was integrated into the Civil government of Geneva The Elect of the Church were individuals chosen for salvation The Geneva Consistory severely regulated conduct By the late 1500s, Calvinism had taken root in Germany, France, the Netherlands, England, and Scotland. In several of these countries, Calvinists faced opposition and persecution from other religious groups.

34. John Calvin

35. Calvinist worship

36. The Anabaptists (for-runners of the Quakers) Anabaptists believed in adult baptism, religious tolerance, and separation of church and state. They shared property and admitted women as ministers. Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists, and Zwinglians all recognized the doctrine of separation of church and state as pointing toward a secular society, and they persecuted Anabaptists. Others wanted use violence to speed up judgment day. Most called for religious tolerance and separation of Church and state. The Growth of the Protestant Reformation

37. Pierre Virer preaching before Calvin

38. The English Reformation The Catholic Church was vigorous in early sixteenth century England and there was less of a gap between clergy and educated laypeople than elsewhere in Europe. In 1534, in order to legitimize his divorce and subsequent marriage to Anne Boleyn, English King Henry VIII convinced Parliament to approve the Act of Supremacy, making him head of the English Church. Later, Henry seized monasteries (because he wanted the money) and distributed their lands to the upper classes. Elizabeth I (r. 1558�1603), daughter of Henry VIII, steered a middle course between Catholicism and the �Puritans� who wanted a �pure� church free of Catholic influences. The Growth of the Protestant Reformation

39. England and the Church

40. Holbein, portrait of Henry VIII

41. Henry VIII on death-bed

42. The Establishment of the Church of Scotland Scottish nobles tended to support the Reformation, while the monarchs, King James V and his daughter Mary (r. 1560�1567), opposed it. James Knox, a minister who studied in Geneva with Calvin, was instrumental in getting the Scottish Parliament to set up a Calvinist church as the official state church of Scotland (Presbyterianism). Protestantism in Ireland Although the English tried to impose their church on Ireland, the Irish resisted and remained Roman Catholic. The Growth of the Protestant Reformation

43. Lutheranism in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark In Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, monarchs took the lead in initiating the Reformation. The sixteenth century saw the establishment of Lutheranism and the consolidation of the Swedish monarchy. Christian III of Denmark and Norway secularized church property and set up a Lutheran church. The Growth of the Protestant Reformation

44. The Reformation in Eastern Europe Ethnic factors shaped the Reformation in Eastern Europe. In Bohemia, ethnic grievances of the Czech majority fused with resentment of the Roman church. By 1500 most Czechs had adopted the utraqism position. During the Counter-Reformation, a Catholic revival was promoted in Bohemia. By 1500 Poland and Lithuania were joined in a dynastic union. Luther�s ideas spread to the Baltic towns and then to the University of Cracow. The Growth of the Protestant Reformation

45. The Reformation in Eastern Europe King Sigismund I of Poland banned Luther�s teachings, limiting its success there. The Polish szlachta found Calvinism appealing. The Counter-Reformation cemented the identification of Poland with Catholicism. Lutheranism reached Hungary via Polish merchants. Military defeat at the battle of Moh�cs by the Ottomans left Hungary divided into three parts. Many Magyar magnates accepted Lutheranism because of the battle. Recognition of Habsburg rule led to a Catholic restoration in 1699. The Growth of the Protestant Reformation

46. The Catholic Reformation and the Counter-Reformation The Slowness of Institutional Reform Preoccupation with the Habsburg-Valois wars and resistance to the idea of a council kept the popes from acting quickly to deal with the Reformation. The Council of Trent The Council of Trent (1545�1563) reaffirmed the equal authority of Scripture and of Church tradition. It reaffirmed also the seven sacraments and transubstantiation. The Council required bishops to reside in their own dioceses, ended pluralism and simony, and forbade the sale of indulgences. The Council ordered that for a marriage to be valid the vows had to be exchanged publicly.

47. Council of Trent, School of Titian

48. New Religious Orders The new order of Ursuline nuns fought heresy with religious education for girls. Ignatius of Loyola founded the Jesuit order to fight the Reformation, again largely through education. The Congregation of the Holy Office In 1542 Pope Paul III created the Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office to manage the Roman Inquisition�s battle against heresy. The Inquisition was a committee of six cardinals with authority to investigate, judge, and punish heretics. They had authority to execute. The Catholic Reformation and the Counter-Reformation

49. Pope approves Jesuit constitutions

50. Teresa of Avila

51. The Reformations: Revolution or Continuity? Protestant historians stress that the Reformation was a radical break with the past, as the Church fragmented. Catholic historians stress continuity, noting the reform efforts underway in the Church well before the Protestant Reformation that continued after it had taken hold. The Catholic Reformation and the Counter-Reformation

52. Map: The Protestant and Catholic Reformations

53. Causes and Effects of the Protestant Reformation

54. Major European Religions about 1600