BULLYING/CYBERBULLYING: AN OVERVIEW – FURTHER INFORMATION FOR TRAINERS

1. BULLYING/CYBERBULLYING: AN OVERVIEW – FURTHER INFORMATION FOR TRAINERS Authors: Prof Mona O’Moore & Lian McGuire, M.Ed. M.Sc. – ABC, Dublin City University

2. OVERVIEW Contents • What is Bullying? • Types of Bullying • Cyberbullying • Effects of Bullying • Warning Signs • Why Do People Bully? • Student roles - Assistants, Defenders, Reinforcers & Outsiders • Misconceptions – Normalisation of Behaviour • The Importance of Supporting/How to Support Victims

3. What is Bullying? What is Bullying? There is no universal or agreed definition of bullying, however it is generally agreed that it is a form of aggression that is intentional and unprovoked as well as being repeated over time. Some form of imbalance of power, whether physical or psychological between the bully and the victim tends also to be involved. Abuse of Power: An imbalance of power is strongly associated with bullying. This imbalance of power may be rooted in age or physical and mental strength, social skills (e.g. verbal acuity) or in social groups (e.g. gangs). Isolated incidents: While there is an emphasis on repeated negative behaviour, cleverly perpetrated one off acts (e.g. threats of future repercussions) that carry long term psychological and emotional effects on the victim, may also be considered bullying.

4. Existing Definitions While there is no over arcing definition, having one is crucial to the understanding of bullying and the development of a policy to prevent and counter bullying behavior. Some notable definitions of traditional and cyber-bullying include: “Bullying is the phenomenon in which an individual is repeatedly victimized by other individual(s) who acts with the intention of causing pain” (Olweus, 1991) “Cyber-bullying is the form of bullying which is carried out using the internet, mobile phone or other technological devices. Cyberbullying generally takes a psychological rather than physical form but is often part of a wider pattern of ‘traditional’ bullying.” (Irish Office of Internet Safety, 2008)”

5. Suggested Further Reading & Links Understanding School Bullying (2010) O’Moore, M. Veritas. Dublin Pupils Definitions of Bullying, Guerin, S & Hennessy, E. (2002) European Journal of Psychology of Education. 17. pp.249-261. Bullying: Considerations for defining and intervening in school settings. Mahri J. Elinoff, M.J., Chafouleas, S.M.& Sassu.K. Volume 41 (8) Volume pp 887–897, November 2004 Bully/victim problems among schoolchildren: Basic facts and effects of a school based intervention program. (1991). Olweus, D. In D. Pepler & K. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. Get With It A Guide to Cyberbullying. (2008) Office for Internet Safety. Dublin http://www.hotline.ie/documents/Cyberbullying.pdf

6. Types of Bullying There are many types of bullying, which are categorised into distinct forms: Direct Bullying: The most common forms of direct bullying that children and adolescents engage in are verbal attacks, physical aggression or assaults, gestures and extortion and cyber-bullying. Indirect Bullying: More covert and anonymous, harder for the victim to identify the bully, forms of indirect bullying include the passing of nasty notes, offensive graffiti, defacing and damaging of personal property. Relational and Social Bullying: Relational bullying which can be indirect in nature, can be damaging to peer relationships. It manifests as the manipulation of social connections or relationships by ignoring, excluding, isolating, or spreading false information and malicious rumours. This form is more common among girls than boys. * Cyberbullying due to its removed nature and yet focused methods of application, has aspects of both the direct and indirect associated with it.

7. The following are the most commonly reported types of bullying Verbal Bullying: Studies have shown that verbal bullying is by far the most common form of bullying among both males and females. Verbal attacks can be of a highly personal and sexual nature. They can be directed at the person’s family, culture, race or religion. Malicious rumours are particularly insidious forms of verbal bullying. An abusive verbal label or campaign can stick and has the potential to destroy the victim’s sense of well being and in the case of a younger person follow the victim into adulthood. Physical Aggression: Direct physical aggression is the most obvious form of bullying but is often written off as "horseplay", "pretend" or "just a game" when challenged. In the case of bullying be aware that these 'games' can be a precursor to vicious physical assaults. Both males and females indulge in physical bullying, males perhaps more so as they have a greater tendency towards physical aggression. Forms are numerous and can include pushing, shoving, poking, hair pulling, spitting, biting, scratching, punching, head butting amongst many others.

8. Gesture Bullying This form consists of many forms of non-verbal aggressive and threatening gestures, which can convey very intimidating and frightening messages. Various methods include the ‘dirty/evil look’, the cold stare, the ‘throat slitting’ gesture, and ‘pulling the trigger’. In addition, where there is a physical or intellectual imbalance a gesture intending to humiliate (e.g. indicating the person is a ‘cripple’ or ‘retarded’) can be applied. Exclusion Bullying Exclusion is particularly prevalent among girls, and is particularly hurtful as it isolates the individual from his/her peer group. This form of bullying can be the most difficult to combat, and the post painful for the victim as it directly impacts on the pupils self confidence and self worth, making them feel as f they are not worth knowing.

9. Extortion Bullying Young children are particularly vulnerable to extortion bullying. Demands for money, possessions or equipment, lunch vouchers or food may be made, often accompanied by threats if the victim does not give what is demanded. Children may also be dared or forced to steal from the school or join in some anti-social act, leaving them (at the mercy of the bully) open to further intimidation. Exhorting bad behaviour, which must be carried out in class also puts the victim at risk of punishment from the school as well as fear of reprisals if they confess the truth to their teachers.

10. Suggested Further Reading & Links The Essential Guide to Tackling Bullying (2011) Elliot, M. Prentice Hall. Understanding School Bullying (2010) O’Moore, M. Veritas. Dublin Free Yourself from Workplace Bullying: Become Bully-Proof and Regain Control of Your Life (2015) Aryanne Orde. Mint Hall Publishing. London. Understanding Girls Friendships, Fights & Feuds: A Practical Approach to Girls’ Bullying. (2006) Besag, V.E. London. Open University Press. School Bullying: Insights and Perspectives. (1994). Smith, P. K., & Sharp, S. London: Routledge Video : Bully For You (2008) Triplevision Productions Ltd. BBC (Northern Ireland). https://vimeo.com/36968349 Video: Silent Witness (2010) Anti Bullying Centre. Dublin. Ireland. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQvzbiPz4s8

11. Cyberbullying Cyberbullying Cyberbullying involves the use of electronic devices to carry the abusive and destructive verbal and visual messages. As mentioned, unlike other types of bullying, cyberbullying can be considered both a direct and indirect form of bullying, in addition, cyberbullying may also be considered to be possibly the most pervasive form of bullying, as unlike other forms of bullying, thanks to computers and phones, it can follow the victim into the home. The most commonly used methods of cyberbullying are: Text Messaging: Can also include ‘sexting’ if texts are of a sexual nature. Instant Messages: Utilising real-time communication software to send inflammatory or intimidating messages to those on a contact list.

12. The most commonly used methods of cyberbullying are: Camera or Video Clips Includes the sending of humiliating, compromising or degrading photos or movies. Social Networks The use of existing social networks (e.g. You Tube, Facebook, Tumblr, AskFM) to post messages or images or create detailed profiles of victims. Email Mass emails can be utilised to humiliate, and individual emails to intimidate, and while traceable there is no guarantee that the account holder is the person who sent it.

13. Websites The creation or devotion of websites given over to the purpose of denigrating or humiliating a person, often by providing personal information, posting or altering photographs, or portraying the individual in a compromising or sexual manner. Online Chat Rooms Chat rooms provide the opportunity for people to hide their true identity with the express purpose of humiliating or insulting other members. _____________________________________________________________ * Note – Disablist, Homophobic & Racist bullying behaviour may occur under any of these types of bullying (e.g. verbal, gesture, cyber) but are not types of bullying in themselves.

14. Suggested Further Reading & Links Understanding Cyberbullying: A Guide for Parents and Teachers (2014) Mona O’Moore. Veritas Publishers. Bullies, Cyberbullies & Frenemies (2013) Michele Elliot. Wayland. Cyberbullying: Approaches, Consequences and Interventions(2016) Lucy Betts. Palgrave. Cyberbullying and E-Safety: What Educators and Other Professionals Need to Know (2012) Adrienne Katz. Jessica Kingsley. London. Advice for Adult Victims of Cyberbullying (2015) Justin Patchin https://cyberbullying.org/advice-for-adult-victims-of-cyberbullying Cyberbullying: Identification, Prevention & Response. (2018) Hinduja & Patchin. https://cyberbullying.org/Cyberbullying-Identification-Prevention-Response-2018.pdf Get With It A Guide to Cyberbullying. (2008) Office for Internet Safety. Dublin http://www.hotline.ie/documents/Cyberbullying.pdf

15. The Effects of Bullying Some of the common effects of bullying on the victim include: • Stress • Reduced Ability to Concentrate • Lack of Motivation Or Energy • Poor Or Deteriorating School Work • Anxiety About Going To School • Loss of Confidence & Self Esteem • Lack Of Appetite / Comfort Eating • Alcohol, Drug Or Substance Abuse • Aggressive Behaviour • Depression • Problems with Sleeping: Nightmares, Bedwetting, Sweats • Stomach & Bowel Disorders • Panic Attacks • Nervous Breakdown • Attempted Suicide (O’Moore, 2010)

16. Effects on Physical Health Studies have found that victims are more likely to miss school or work through illness, experience subjective health complaints and lower levels of life satisfaction than those not involved in bullying. (WHO, 2002) Effects on Mental Well Being Anger, upset and fear are the most obvious emotional effects of both traditional and cyberbullying (O’Moore & Minton, 2009) Victims have found to suffer changes in personality, experience mood swings, and been found to have great feelings of inadequacy when it comes to self-esteem, while depression, thoughts of suicide and suicide itself are increasingly recognised as being associated with bullying. Effects on Educational/Occupational Well Being Unhappiness in school or work would naturally lead to an unwillingness to attend, and absenteeism can often be a pointer towards a possibly bullying issue. For those who do attend, individuals who are being bullied are often unable to draw maximum benefit from their time in class or at work because much of their energy is directed towards fear of the next incident of bullying. (Gastic, 2008; Boulton et al, 2008)

17. Long Term/Chronic Effects of Being Bullied The poor self esteem that can develop from being bullied in childhood can have long term consequences for those who suffer it, with their adulthood similarly affected by poor ideas of self worth and depression. Studies have shown that a wide range of psychological problems can develop, and trust issues can become a notable factor. It should be noted that should the school/authorities fail to act in a timely or constructive manner this can compound the bullying for the victim, and affect trust levels for the victim in regards to both organisations and individuals. (Sourander, et al 2007; Phillips, H., 2004 )

18. Effects of Bullying Others Bullying does not just have consequences for the victims, those who bully are also found to have personal repercussions for their actions. General Health The World Health Organisations study (2008) on school children reported that bullies general health was in fact poorer than those they bullied, with more girls than boys affected. Mental Health Bullies also show heightened levels of suicidal thoughts and depression. And it has been claimed that the greatest risk of suicidal was detected among those who bullied. (Kaltialo-Heino,R. 1999). Research has also found that when depressive symptoms increased in bullies so too did the aggression directed at the victim. (Roland, 2002) Long Term Consequences Bullying others when young is aslso associated with an increased risk of developing an anti-social personality in later life. It heightens the likelihood of drug abuse and lawbreaking behaviour in adulthood, while educational attainment has also been found to suffer. In addition it as been found to lead to violence in later relationships, with evidence also to suggest that girls who bully in childhood will develop an aggressive parenting style. (Huesman et al, 2009; Connolly etal, 2000)

19. Effects on Bully-Victims It is only recently that those who are both bullied and bully others (bully-victims) have come to be regarded as a distinct group. However, there is evidence that points to them having greater psychological problems than either victims or bullies. While victims tend to suffer from anxiety disorders and bullies from conduct disorders, bully victims are affected by both. As their behaviours cause them to be more isolated from their peers than either victims or bullies they have a higher rate of absenteeism than either. They also suffer from depression to a greater extent than pure bullies or victims. In addition studies have found that bully-victims have a high rate of developing a psychiatric disorder in later life in comparison to bullies or victims, and five times the rate of those who have never been bullied. Effects on Bystanders Another often overlooked group are the bystanders, who by stepping in can often risk losing their peer groups esteem and becoming isolated themselves. Alternatively by not stepping in they can carry the guilt of not acting forward with them into adulthood.

20. Suggested Further Reading & Links Aggression, Depression & Bullying Others (2002) Roland, E. Aggressive Behaviour, 28, pp 198-206. What is the early adulthood outcome of boys who bully or are bullied in Childhood? Finnish ‘From a Boy to a Man’ study. (2007) Sourander et al, in Paediatrics, 120, pp 397-404. Effects of Bullying worse for Teens. (2004) Phillips, H. New Scientist, 29. School Truancy and the disciplinary problems of bullying victims. (2008) Gastic, B. Educational Review. 60 (4) pp 391 – 404. Beatbullying – Bullying & Truancy Report (2006) http://bullyingsurvey.co.uk/Resources/BullyingAndTruancy2006.pdf Video: Silent Witness (2010) Anti Bullying Centre. Dublin. Ireland. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YQvzbiPz4s8 Video – Sticks & Stones - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ntq4IV38FRs Video – Bullying and its effects on a child - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ylgCnXgH_bc

21. Warning Signs of Bullying Keeping in mind that many victims and bystanders do not tell it is vital to spot the warning signs: • Unexplained bruising, cuts or damaged clothes • Visible signs of anxiety or distress - refusal to say what is wrong • Unexplained mood swings or behaviour • - becoming withdrawn • - becoming clinging • - attention seeking • - aggressive behaviour • Out of character behaviour • Deterioration in work or educational attainments • Loss of concentration • Loss of interest in school or work • Erratic attendance • Lingering behind in school after classes are over • Loss of or damage to personal possessions or equipment

22. Warning Signs for Cyberbullying While the signs for effects of cyberbullying are often indistinguishable from those of traditional bullying, there are some specific to cyber-bullying: • Appears upset when online or coming offline • Appears upset when viewing a text message • Withdraws from social interaction with peers • Possible drop in academic or work performance A significant proportion of cyber-victims also remove themselves from the online venue in which the in which the cyber-bullying occurred, with as many as one in five feeling forced to stay offline for a period of time. ____________________ In addition to these signs and symptoms there is the likelihood of there being psychosomatic symptoms, such as headaches, stomach aches and general insomnia, is also great. Bed-wetting and sleepwalking can also be indicative of the psychological stress associated with bullying.

23. Suggested Further Reading & Links Cyberbullying: Bullying in the Digital Age. (2008) Kowalski,R.M., Limber,S.P, and Agatston,P.W. Blackwell Publishing, 2008. Understanding Cyberbullying (2014) O’Moore, M. Veritas. Dublin Bullies, Cyberbullies & Frenemies (2013) Michele Elliot. Wayland. Cyberbullying: Identification, Prevention & Response. (2018) Hinduja & Patchin. https://cyberbullying.org/Cyberbullying-Identification-Prevention-Response-2018.pdf Bullying: A Handbook for Educators and Parents (2009) Rivers,I., Duncan,N. & Besag,V.E. Rowan & Littlefield. Philadelphia. Bullying: A Parent’s Guide (2005) Need 2 Know. Peterborough. Tell Tale Signs – Bully 4 U - http://bully4u.ie/bullying-in-schools/communicating/warning-signs-of-bullying/ Understanding School Bullying (2010) O’Moore, M. Veritas. Dublin

24. Why Do People Bully? While constitutional factors play a part in aggressive behaviour, it is recognised that factors within the home, school and wider society influence the development of aggressive behaviour.  It is therefore more likely that bullies are not ‘born’ but made. From birth, children learn from those around them, at home, and later at school for both good and ill. If aggressive behaviour is not challenged in childhood, there is a danger that it may become habitual.  Factors which contribute to aggressive behaviour are: • Lack of love and care • Too much freedom • Inconsistent discipline • Permissive management of aggressive behaviour • Violent emotional outbursts on part of adults • Excessive physical punishment • Cruelty

25. Factors which contribute to aggression are: • Inconsistent and inflexible rules • Poor staff morale • Inadequate supervision • Punishment that is too harsh, abusive or humiliating • Few incentives and rewards for non-aggressive behaviour • Curriculum that affords few feelings of success and achievement • Other factors in wider society include violence portrayed on cinema screens and on television. Research suggests that children who constantly view violence on TV and video develop more aggressive tendencies and less empathy with victims of aggression. This is especially true of children who experience violence in their home and their neighbourhood as part and parcel of their daily lives.

26. Characteristics of a Bully Contrary to often popular portrayal, people who bully do not all share the same traits. Bullies can be identified by how they act, not how they look, and do not vary in appearance from their non bullying peers. (O’Moore & Kirkham, 2001) However they do tend to have one or more of the following characteristics: • A strong need to dominate socially/feel powerful/be in control • Low level of frustration and are easily angered • Low self-control and are impulsive and reactive • Not anxious • Do not take responsibility for their behaviour but instead blame the victim • They have a tough attitude • See aggression as a favourable quality • They are oppositional, defiant and aggressive • They are insensitive and derive pleasure in hurting others, including animals • Lack emotional empathy • Engage in other forms of anti-social, rule-breaking behaviour • Loud and attention seeking • May have been bullied themselves

27. Motivation Bullying can be motivated by: • Envy or jealousy • Boredom • Competing for attention/social status – satisfying need to dominate • Avoid victimisation – getting retaliation in first Bullying can also be symptomatic of a conduct disorder, which is more likely to be anti-social than neurotic

28. Pure Bullies & Bully-Victims Research points to only two types of bullies. Pure bullies, and those who both bully and are themselves bullied (bully-victims). Pure Bullies Pure bullies tend to be the more common type of bully, and tend to be domineering, fearless and show little empathy for others. They have a positive attitude to aggression and tend to target their victims in a predatory or a proactively aggressive manner. They also: • Tend to hang together to reinforce their behaviour or have ‘hangers on’ • Will deny their behaviour if challenged and try to blame the victim • Are prone to moral disengagement and will rationalise harmful acts against others. • Expect positive outcomes from their negative behaviours (e.g. increase in self esteem, or status, peer admiration) • Have lower self esteem than those who did not bully

29. Bully-Victims Bully-Victims tend to be similar in type to what are known as ‘proactive’ or ‘aggressive’ victims. These tend to be perceived as being socially inept, confrontational with an impulsive nature, and poor self control, with a tendency to speak without thinking. Bully Victims tend to: • Have fewer friends than pure bullies • Have a higher proportion of Aspergers / ADHD sufferers • While as tough minded, they appear more neurotic than pure bullies • Resemble victims by being rejected and isolated by their peers, and bullies by being negatively influenced by their peers they interact with. Some research (Unnever, 2005) suggests that that bully victims have been more harshly treated within their home environment, coming from a more chaotic background with less parental involvement than their peers.

30. Suggested Further Reading & Links Understanding School Bullying (2010) O’Moore, M. Veritas. Dublin Adult Bullying--A Nasty Piece of Work:: Translating Decade of Research on Non-Sexual Harassment, Psychological Terror, Mobbing, and Emotional Abuse on the Job. (2013) Pamela LutgenSandvik. Create Space Independent Publishing Platform Bullies & Victims at School : Are they the same people? (2007) Solberg, M.E. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 77. pp 441-464 Bullies, Aggressive Victims & Victims: Are they Distinct Groups (2005) Aggressive Behaviour, 31. pp153-171 Bye-Bye, Bully: A Kid's Guide for Dealing with Bullies (2003) Jackson, J.S. Abbey Press. The Relationship between Bullying & Self Esteem (2001) O’Moore, M. & Kirkham, C. Aggressive Behaviour, 27, pp 269-283. Boulton, M.J. & Smith, P.K. (1994). Bully/ victim problems among middle school children: Stability, self-perceived competence, and peer acceptance. British Journal of Developmental Psychology.

31. Other Roles Victims For most people, when you talk about someone who gets bullied there is a clear mental image in their head of the ‘classic’ victim. The small, perhaps chubby, bespectacled individual.The truth is less clear cut. Anyone, through no fault of their own may be bullied. Anything, no matter how small, that sets the victim apart from the bully or bullies may be sufficient ‘justification’ in their eyes. For example they may claim they: • Have a different accent • Wear different clothes • Have a different religion • Come for a different country • Have a different social or economic background • Have a learning disability • Are gifted In reality sometimes all it takes is for someone to be in the wrong place at the wrong time. Indeed reasons may be ‘invented’ and labels given, ‘slut’, ‘retard’ etc. Therefore it is not unusual to find that there are many people buliled who are popular and socially well adjusted.

32. However it is recognised that there are those who are more likely to be targeted than others. They tend to have: • An anxious, sensitive, shy, insecure and cautious temperament • Fewer good friends • Low self esteem • A passive, non aggressive or non-assertive manner • An emotionally reactive manner • Clumsy entry behaviour when they try to join a peer group • The characteristics that have been found to increase the likelihood of being bullied fall into two categories: • Submissive/Passive • Provocative • The majority fall into the passive category and tend to be fearful, withdrawn, anxious, cautious and tend to show emotion when upset. They are also less inclined to physical activity/sports than others. However, as mentioned jealousy can be a factor in bullying and high sporting achievement can also make someone a target.

33. Provocative/Aggressive-Victims As mentioned in the section on ‘Who Bullies?’ there are some children who unwittingly invite attacks by behaving in ways that cause tension and irritation in their immediate vicinity. Such children, often referred to as ‘provocative’ victims may have inadequate social skills or learning difficulties. These make up the minority group of victims, and are found to tease and taunt yet are quick to complain of victimisation if they are retaliated against. Much like their more passive counterparts they are found to be anxious, insecure, unhappy and distressed. However, when insulted or attacked they would react in a hot tempered manner and fight back albeit ineffectively. They can also bully those weaker than themselves, and in doing so they share characteristics with those who bully, leading to them now being referred to as bully-victims or aggressive victims. Aggressive victims also have fewer friends than pure victims and because of their diminished peer group they have a tendency to bully more physically than verbally, as verbal bullying has been shown to be more dependent on a support group than physical bullying.

34. Assistants, Reinforcers, Defenders & Outsiders Often operating alongside the bully and the bully victims there are what are known as assistants and re-inforcers. (Salmivalli, Karhune and Lagerspetz, 1996) • Assistants actively assist the person who takes the lead and initiates the bullying. • Re-inforcers act in ways which reinforces or incites the bullying behaviour, for example, by laughing . Then there are Defenders who tend to be supportive and make active efforts to have the bullying stopped. The Outsiders stay out of the bullying situation altogether. Reasons why people do not act more readily as a Defender can be many, ranging from the situational context to personal factors. The factors which have been identified (Thornberg, 2007) are: • Lack of empathy • Selfish motives (the risk to themselves from intervening) • Conflicting attitudes, social norms or moral ideas( loyalty to individual or group) • Group processes and social influence(authority influence, group pressure and the bystander effect, i.e. presence of other people serves to inhibit or stop the desire to help) • Lack of skills and competence (not knowing how to intervene)

35. Suggested Further Reading & Links Understanding School Bullying (2010) O’Moore, M. Veritas. Dublin Being Different: Correlates of the Experience of Teasing & Bullying. (2001) Research Papers in Education, 16. pp,225-246. A classmate in distress: schoolchildren as bystanders and their reasons for how they act. (2007). Thornberg, R. Social Psychology of Education, 10, 5-28. How do victims respond to bullying? (1996). Samivalli, C., Karhune, J. & Lagerspetz, K.M.J. Aggressive Behaviour, 22, 99-109. The Four Pillars Of Action : The Role of Guidance Counsellors in developing and implementing the Whole School Community Approach in Tackling Bullying, both Traditional and Cyber. O’Moore, M. http://schoolguidancehandbook.ncge.ie/docs/000028/The%20Four%20Pillars%20of%20Action.pdf