Research Applications in Career & Technical Education

1. Originally developed by Dr. Jim Dyerof the University of FloridaModified by Dr. David Agnew, September, 2006Arkansas State University Research Applications in Career & Technical Education

2. Review

3. Overview of Research • What is research? (review) • What are the types of studies? • What terms are associated with research? • What is the purpose of research? • What are the characteristics of research?

4. What is Research? • The systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of phenomenon under consideration Disciplined Inquiry

5. What Are the Types of Studies? • Status • variable cannot be manipulated by researcher. • Associational • variable can be manipulated by researcher, but is not. • Experimental • variable is manipulated by researcher.

6. What terms are associated with research? • Variable • any factor having two or more mutually exclusive properties or values. • Dependent (criterion) variable • Outcome, cannot change. • Independent variable • can manipulate.

7. Terms • Extraneous variable • may affect dependent variable and change result. • Antecedent variable • present at beginning. • Covariate • antecedent or extraneous variable measured before and after treatment.

8. Terms (continued) • Discrete • one specific meaning--hair color, grade (A-F), marital status (S,M,D,W) • Continuous • can have only one value--IQ, age • Dichotomous • discrete variable with only two distinct categories--yes/no, gender

9. Terms • Hypothesis • statement of expectation. • Null Hypothesis (HO) • stated for no change. • Alternate Hypothesis (HA) • stated for change. • Directional Hypothesis (H1) • states direction of change.

10. Terms • Cronbach’s alpha • measures internal consistency based upon relationship to other statements on instrument. • a priori • prior to • Population (target population) • group to which we generalize. (N) • Sample • smaller group of population. (n)

11. Terms (continued) • Sampling frame • list of accessible people. • Experimentally accessible population • members of population we can access. • Parameter • unknown characteristic of the population. • Statistic • known characteristic of the sample.

12. What is the Purpose of Research? • Describe -- Ex: settings • Predict -- Ex: success based on ACT • Improve--Ex: teaching methods • Explain -- answers “why?”

13. What Are the Types of Research -- by Purpose • Basic • results in development of new knowledge without concern for how or where it will be used. • Applied • tests theories developed by basic research. • Action • has specific application with the decision-maker involved in conducting the research.

14. Types of Research -- by Philosophy • Quantitative -- (Positivistic) • Things are meaningful only if we can verify them with our five senses. • Qualitative -- (Post-positivistic) • All research is value-laden. Can’t remove self from research.

15. Types of Research -- by Method • Experimental • Correlational • Evaluation • Historical • Naturalistic • Survey Survey Experimental Histo al Correlational Eva tion Naturalistic

16. Experimental • Definition • Establishes cause and effect relationship. • Systemmatically answers: Is there a difference in characteristic X between and within groups and with and without characteristic Y? (Ex: productivity & background music)

17. Experimental • Purpose • Seeks to identify differences between and/or within groups to the extent they possess characteristics which can be measured in quantitative terms. • Example: • “The Effect of PowerPoint Visuals on Achievement in a Research Methods Course”

18. Experimental • Nature • Involve systematic manipulation of some characteristic • Only way to identify cause and effect • Starts with hypothesis (a priori) • Write research problem as a question • Write hypothesis as an answer to the question (statement)

19. Experimental • Strengths • rigorous; replicable • can specify likelihood of errors of inference • forces us to be explicit about variables to be studied and hypotheses to be tested • Limitations • tendency to disvalue qualitative information • confuse statistical with logical/practical meaning • results are “average,” individuals are nuisances

20. Correlational • Definition • Answers the question: “To what extent are characteristics X and Y related?” (Ex: the louder the music, the higher the productivity). • Purpose • determines relationship • does NOT determine cause • predict score on one variable from knowledge of another

21. Correlational • Nature • involves collection of information about several characteristics • measures relationship • Example: • The Relationship Between GRE Scores and Graduate GPA of Agricultural Education Doctoral Students at Iowa State University

22. Correlational • Strengths • analyze relationships among large number of variables in single study • provides information on degree of relationship • predict characteristic • Limitations • not cause and effect • difficult to identify all variables--best to use lit review

23. Evaluation • Definition • Collection and use of information to facilitate decision making or determination of worth • Purpose • assists in decision making • aids in planning • assists in meeting accountability demands

24. Evaluation • Nature • intentions vary per study • results for specific situation only • audience is important for design & reporting • usually done for a client • Example • An Assessment of the Grading Practices in the College of Agriculture at Iowa State University

25. Evaluation • Strengths • information for program improvement (action) • provides accountability information • looks at processes and products • Limitations • danger of being too subjective • difficult to evaluate and set criteria for some processes & products (intangible, unintended)

26. Historical • Definition • narration and description of “true” record of past events, their developmental trends, and their interpretation • it is a longitudinal, genetic, or developmental approach in the past • attempts to discern actual meaning of primary and secondary sources by subjecting to external and internal criticism

27. Historical • Purpose • construction of conceptual frameworks • collection and analysis of historical evidence • determination of meaning • Nature • involves collection and analysis of primary and secondary sources • no variables

28. Historical • Example • The Origin and Development of Agricultural Education in America • Strengths • understanding of history • Limitations • past view is easily distorted in present setting • difficult to remain objective--selective searching

29. Naturalistic • Definition • attends to ordinary happenings and uses common language reporting to provide experience for research audience • Purpose • oriented to practice, not theory • Example • Case Studies in Agricultural Education

30. Naturalistic • Nature • observation and interview techniques used • high attention to context • narrative reporting with illustrations • variables not used as conceptual structure • Strengths • easy to comprehend by lay people, interesting • resists some research oversimplifications

31. Naturalistic • Limitations • requires special research skills to do properly • researcher-biased, objectivity poorly controled • difficult to summarize, lots of notes • time-consuming to conduct

32. Survey (descriptive) • Definition • present-oriented methodology used to investigate populations using samples to analyze interrelationships among variables • used to collect facts and assess beliefs, interests, and attitudes • Example • The Career Interests of Secondary Agricultural Education Students

33. Survey (descriptive) • Purpose • clarify and describe problems through data gathering process • Descriptive -- describes phenomena at point in time • Comparative -- compares populations on some criteria • Evaluative -- assesses aspects of setting by some criteria

34. Survey (descriptive) • Nature • involves identification of population, sampling plan, & variables; data gathering instrument; natural setting • Strengths • large amount of information • can quickly get data • well suited for extensive research

35. Survey (descriptive) • Limitations • may be superficial, not in-depth • in longitudinal studies, difficult to remain in contact with respondents

36. The Research Problem

37. Stating the Research Problem • Use a complete sentence with as few words as possible. • Limit/focus the statement. • Examples: • Using learning teams = “What effect does learning teams have on achievement?” • Effect of problem solving approach = “What is the effect of the problem solving approach on student achievement, attitude, and retention of subject matter?”

38. Stating the Research Problem • Delimit research -- what will be done? • Define terms -- define only those terms which may be confusing or have special meaning. • State assumptions -- what do you assume? • State research hypotheses and/or research questions -- use these to guide study. • Explain importance of study.

39. Reviewing Literature

40. Purpose of a Lit Review • What has been done? • What was found? • Were there problems with prior studies that you can avoid? • Where are the holes in the research base? (What has yet to be found?)

41. Tools of Research (Leedy) • Library • Measurement techniques--Design • Computer Programs (SPSS, SAS) • Statistics • Writing ability

42. Library • Sources of information • Primary sources • Secondary sources • Conducting the literature review • ERIC • RIE • DAI

43. Planning the Research Design

44. Criteria for Research Project • Universality -- can be completed by anyone • Replication -- can be repeated under same conditions with same results • Control -- use parameters to control as many variables as possible • Measurement -- important to quantify as much as possible

45. Data Collection • What data are needed? • Where can we get it? • How can we get it? • How will it be interpreted?

46. Aggregate Data • Definition of:To gather, collect or assemble. For example, "to aggregate data" means to gather separate sets of data. As a noun, "aggregate data" is data that has been collected from two or more sources.

47. Ethical Standards • Personal integrity of researcher, fair, honest • Right of privacy of participants • Disclosure of methods • Reason for research • Informed willingness • Respect for integritity of individual • Acknowledge financial support

48. Effects • Hawthorne Effect -- any change in environment produces a change in response. • John Henry Effect -- Control group sees itself in competition with main group. • Pygmalian Effect -- We see what we want to see.

49. Contamination • Experimenter -- researcher knowingly or unknowingly influences application or observation of treatment. • Statistical -- related data are treated as being independent in the statistical analysis.

50. Bias in Research Design • Deliberate -- check numbers • Non-deliberate -- phrases, titles, etc. (“What’s wrong with Ag. Ed.?) • Selection • Volunteers • Mortality (why did they leave) • Groups that differ • Learning time • Teacher Quality