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VII. Cook’s Expeditions

VII. Cook’s Expeditions. A) The voyages of Captain James Cook receive credit as the first sea expeditions devoted to methodical , scientific oceanography . 1) His reports changed the western view of the world.

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VII. Cook’s Expeditions

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  1. VII. Cook’s Expeditions

  2. A) The voyages of Captain James Cook receive credit as the first sea expeditions devoted to methodical,scientific oceanography. • 1) His reports changed the western view of the world. 2) He discovered Australia, New Zealand, many islands in the South Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands, the West Coast of the US and Canada, the Bering Strait and the Antarctic Circle. 3) A major contribution to Cook’s voyages was the invention of the chronometer. • In 1735, John Harrison invented a clock that runs accurately at sea. This made it possible to determine longitude accurately.

  3. VIII. The United States Exploring Expedition A) Under command of Lt. Charles Wilkes, it was one of the first significant scientific expeditions launched by the US. B) The objective was to explore the southern Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, to collect specimens, and to map, illustrate and provide text to document their discoveries.

  4. C) The most outstanding achievement of the US Exploring Expedition was proving the existence of Antarctica. D) The Father of Physical Oceanography Matthew Maury

  5. 1) Between 1842-1855, Matthew Maury published many detailed works on sea navigation. He earned global acclaim for his work and his data was adopted worldwide. • a) In 1855, he published The Physical Geography of the Sea, which is now considered the first textbook on modern oceanography and he is remembered today as the father of physical oceanography.

  6. IX. Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle A) The Beagle began it’s five-year voyage with Charles Darwin as the ship’s naturalist in 1831. The H.M.S. Beagle ultimately circled the Earth.

  7. 1) Darwin noted that coral grows in relatively shallow, warm, upper depths. • a) But, coral reefs extend deeper than coral grows. Darwin observed the massive reefs must form when the sea floor slowly sinks and coral grows upward from its base to remain in shallow water. 2) Darwin is renowned for his theories on natural selection and the evolution of species. a) In 1859, he published The Origin of Species.

  8. X. The Challenger Expedition A) The Challenger expedition (1872-1876), is known and recognized as the first devoted entirely to marine science.

  9. 1) The two men responsible for the mission were Scottish professor Sir Charles Wyville Thomson and British naturalist Sir John Murray. 2) Among its accomplishments and discoveries, the expedition: • a) Took the first soundings deeper than 4,000 meters (13,123 feet) – 8,200 meters (26,900 feet) in the Marianas Trench. • b) Captured biological samples in midwater and along the bottom with a towed device.

  10. c) Discovered marine organisms in the deepest parts of the ocean, contrary to popular belief at the time.

  11. d) Sampled and illustrated plankton in various habitats and depths not previously studied. • e) Cataloged and identified 715 new genera and 4,717 new species. XI. The Oceanography Explosion A) The Industrial Revolution spearheaded the growth and expansion of marine sciences. This included: • 1) Better ships made of iron with steam engines. • 2) Improvements in the design and building of research equipment. 3) The advent of the submarine.

  12. 4) Global conflict helping to accelerate research in science and technology. B) Three Expeditions 1) The German MeteorExpedition (1925) • a) Crossed the Atlantic 14 times in two years.

  13. b) Data collected established patterns for ocean water circulation, nutrient dispersal, and plankton growth. • c) Primary accomplishment was mapping the Atlantic seafloor with echo-sounding technology. 2) The United States Atlantis Expedition – 1931

  14. a) The first ship specifically designed and built for ocean studies. • b) Atlantis added to the work of the Meteor as well as confirmed the existence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and mapped it. 3) The H.M.S. Challenger II Expedition – 1951 • a) Mission to measure the depths of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans.

  15. b) Used eco-sounding technology for mapping. • c) Challenger II’s most noted discovery wasfinding the deepest known part of the ocean. At 10,838 meters (35,558 feet) deep, this is still the deepest known place in the world. d) This spot, located in the Marianas Trench, was named Challenger Deep in honor of the first Challenger expedition. RV Flip

  16. 1. Describe LORAN-C and GPS. 2. Which navigational system would you rather have? 3. Tell me why your prefer one system to another.

  17. Glomar Explorer

  18. XII. Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving A) How the oceans were studied was changed forever by the submersibles and self-contained diving. 1) Instead of grabbing samples blindly, a scientist could pick specific ones.

  19. 2) Scientists could take delicate samples without damaging them and living organisms without killing them. 3) Scientists can directly observe the geology, life, and other phenomena without taking any samples.

  20. B) Submersibles 1) Three types of submersibles used for underwater research: a) Bathysphere - operated only vertically. ( Barton & BeBe )

  21. b) Bathyscaphe - operated much like a blimp air ship by releasing ballast and had a small electric motor to give it limited horizontal mobility.

  22. c) Deep-diving submersibles - state of the art today, far less fragile than bathyscaphes, easier to launch and use in rough seas. This makes them suitable for more varied types of research. Some even have robotic arms

  23. XIII. Self-Contained Diving A) In 1840, Augustus Siebe introduced the first practical dive equipment; hard-hat diving that supplied air from the surface through a hose.

  24. NOAA, US Monitor 427 ft in Lk Michigan

  25. B) Used mainly for underwater construction, salvage, and ship maintenance. Limited because it is heavy and requires a support team and vessel. C) In 1878, Englishman Henry Fleuss introduced the first workable self-contained underwater breathing apparatus, called scuba today.

  26. D) In 1943, Jacques Cousteau introduced the first practical scuba.

  27. ADVANTAGES vs. DISADVANTAGES Scuba & Submersibles

  28. XIV. ROVs, AUVs, Electronic Navigation, and Satellites A) Technology such as electronics and space travel have provided four important contributions to oceanography:

  29. 1. Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) became common in the late 1970s. a) A ROV is a small, unmanned submarine with propellers, video camera, and an umbilical to the surface. b) ROVs are an economical way to match the capability of a submersible and the dexterity of a scuba diver.

  30. 2. AUVs) a) AUVs Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (are untethered robotic devices propelled through the water by self-contained power systems.

  31. b) Piloted by an onboard computer, AUVs are launched from the surface and are maneuvered in three dimensions. c) AUVs sample the ocean along precise preprogrammed underwater paths.

  32. 3. The first electronic navigation came into use in the late 1960s. • LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation), later called Loran-C, used land based radio transmitters along the coasts. • However, accuracy varied with distance from the transmitters. The farther from a transmitter the less accurate is the position. 4. Satellites – sea surface observations.

  33. a) Satellites orbit the Earth and assist oceanographers with global observations of the oceans. b) Satellites assist oceanographers in understanding the influence and effect of the oceans on the global climate systems. c) Information gathered from satellites helps to validate computer models that numerically simulate climatic events. 1) Three types of sea surface observations made by satellites o benefit oceanographers:

  34. a) Provide long-time continuous measurements of variables such as sea-surface height, shape, temperature, and color over the entire planet. b) Can detect algae blooms and river plumbs, monitor pollution, and assist oceanographers in understanding the influence and effect of the oceans on the global climate system. c) Scientists can look at large areas of ocean in a very short time.

  35. 5. In the 1990s, GPS (Global Positioning System) replaced the Loran. a) GPS is based on signals from orbiting satellites and works everywhere on Earth, all the time, in all weather and is more accurate – to within 1-2 meters (3-6 feet).

  36. 6) How GPS works.

  37. ( GPS uses triangulation to accurately determine a position on Earth. • Satellite 1 transmits its location and time. • This process is repeated for 2 and 3. • Where the three signals meet at the GPS is its location expressed in specific coordinates. • Satellite 4’s signal is required to obtain the elevation of the GPS unit. • In the 1990s, GPS replaced Loran. • GPS is based on signals from orbiting satellites and works everywhere on Earth, all the time, in all weather and is accurate – to within 1-2 meters (3-6 feet). )

  38. 7) Electronic navigation has been very important for oceanographers: a) Scientists know where they are when they take samples or conduct research. b) They can provide this information to other scientists who need to conduct research in the same location. c) Makes navigation significantly more accurate and easy.

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