A Brief History of the Jewish State

A Brief History of the Jewish State From property of the sovereign... …to a sovereign state Jews in the Middle Ages designated as servi camera (ruler’s property) IDF soldiers in Jerusalem

Jews in pre-19th Century Europe Prior to 19th century, European Jews consistently subject to massacres and expulsion • Massacres (tens of thousands killed/tortured) • Crusades (1096-1229) • Black Death (1348-1351) • Chmielnicki massacre in Ukraine (1648) • Expulsions • France (1254, 1306, 1322, 1394) • England (1290) • Spain (1492) • Portugal (1496) • Germany/Bohemia (throughout Middle Ages until 1750) Deggendorf massacre (1337) Entire Jewish community killed in one day

Jews in 19th Century Europe:Emancipation • After French Revolution, Jews gradually liberated, ultimately leading to full equal rights (at least in theory) in France (1831), Germany (1848-1860s), Austria (1867) and Italy (1848-1870) • Jewish presence in major cities grows much faster than the rest of the population • Jewish intellectuals increasingly focus on secular culture, rather than religious doctrine • In Western Europe, Jews steadily assimilate into broader society and embrace national identity of states they inhabit • Benjamin Disraeli, born to a Jewish family (later baptized) and outspoken philo-semite, becomes British PM (1868 and again in 1874) Hayyim (a.k.a. Heinrich) Heine (1797-1856) Widely considered greatest German poet of 19th century

Jews in 19th Century Europe:Russian Anti-Semitism • Massive pogroms break out in Ukraine, often with government support (1881-1884) • Legislation greatly restricts Jewish education, labor force participation, residence rights and voting rights • Tsar Alexander III labels Jews as “Christ-killers” and oppressors of Christian Slavs • Tsarist secret police forges and publishes Protocolsof the Elders of Zion (1903), describing purported Jewish conspiracy to dominate world • Persecution results in mass emigration of poor Russian Jews to Western Europe, fueling anti-Semitism there Konstantin Pobedonostsev (1827-1907) Advisor to Alexander III and Head of Russian Orthodox Church “The characteristics of the Jewish race are parasitic; for their sustenance they require the presence of another race as ‘host’ although they remain aloof and self-contained. Take them from the living organism, put them on a rock, and they die. They cannot cultivate the soil.“ – Pobedonostsev

Jews in 19th Century Europe:German Anti-Semitism • After Napoleon, rise of German nationalism leads to popularization of “Volk” concept, glorifying “authentic” Germans and their “natural” roots • Depicts Jews as “alien” and “cosmopolitan” threats to traditional Volk • Emergence of racial component to anti-Semitism, framing Jewish threat as part of “Social Darwinist” struggle • Anti-Semitic parties gain political strength, especially in Vienna under leadership of Karl Lueger Richard Wagner (1813-1883) “I regard the Jewish race as the born enemy of pure humanity and everything that is noble in it; it is certain we Germans will go under before them, and perhaps I am the last German who knows how to stand up as an art-loving man against the Judaism that is already getting control of everything.” – Wagner (1881)

Jews in 19th Century Europe:French Anti-Semitism • Napoleon gathers assembly of Jewish notables (1806), fueling anti-Semitic conspiracy theories • French pseudo-scientists promote racist theories of Semitic inferiority vs. Aryans • Multiple financial scandals involving Jews provide fodder for anti-Jewish press • Assumptionist order of Catholic clergy, in effort to promote Christian revival, claims Jews conspiring with Protestants and Freemasons against France • Édouard Drumont publishes La France Juive (1886), 1,200 pages of rabid anti-Semitism that is immensely popular La France Juive (1886) “It seems to me interesting and useful to describe the successive phases of this Jewish conquest, to indicate how, little by little, as a result of Jewish activities, old France has been dissolved, broken up, how its unselfish, happy, loving people has been replaced by a hateful people, hungry for gold and soon to be dying of hunger.” – Drumont (1886)

Dreyfus Affair (1894-1906) • Alfred Dreyfus, only Jew in French army general staff, is accused of passing secrets to Germans (1894) • Despite scant evidence and his denial of the charges, Dreyfus convicted in secret trial in which he’s not allowed to view the evidence against him • Dreyfus then stripped of his rank in a public ceremony designed to humiliate him • Outside, crowds chant “Death to the Jews!” • Ceremony is covered by young Hungarian reporter, Theodore Herzl • Dreyfus sentenced to life imprisonment and solitary confinement on Devil’s Island, near French Guiana Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935)

Dreyfus Affair (1894-1906) • Two years later, new chief of French military intelligence, Lt Col Picquart, uncovers evidence that real culprit was Major Esterhazy • Army suppresses Picquart’s evidence and transfers him to Tunisia • Military court acquits Esterhazy in 2 days despite compelling evidence against him • Word of cover-up leaks to press and becomes national issue due to J’accuse, an open letter by novelist Émile Zola (1898) • Army later convicts Dreyfus of additional charges based on documents forgedby French counter-intelligence officer, Lt Col Henry (1899)

Dreyfus Affair (1894-1906) • “Dreyfus Affair” bitterly divides French society: • Army, Catholic church and many rightists claim Dreyfus acting as part of Jewish conspiracy against France • Socialists, moderates and Radical Party claim Dreyfus was framed • Dreyfus eventually pardoned (1899) and fully exonerated (1906), with his rank restored • Anti-Semitic themes from “anti-Dreyfusard” camp later espoused by Nazis • Dreyfusards’ victory causes counter-reaction among segments of population, sowing the seeds for French collaboration with Nazis in WWII Édouard Drumont and anti-Semitic newspaper he founded. Headline is: “Traitor condemned 10 yrs of Detention and Degradation Down with the Jews!”

Theodore Herzl • Born to secular family in Hungary, with little Jewish education • Moves to Paris, becomes playwright, journalist and writer • Originally believes “Jewish question” should be solved by assimilation or conversion • Relentless anti-Semitism in “enlightened” countries, typified by Dreyfus Affair and rise of Karl Lueger in Vienna, convinces Herzl that Jews need sanctuary of their own • Herzl publishes Der Judenstaat (“The State of the Jews”) (1896) Theodor Herzl (1860-1904) “In vain do we exert ourselves to increase the glory of our fatherlands by achievements in art and in science and their wealth by our contributions to commerce…We are denounced as strangers…If only they would leave us in peace…But I do not think they will.” – Herzl (1896)

Theodore Herzl • Wealthy Jews, Orthodox and Reform rabbis in Western Europe generally ignore Herzl or see his plan as threat to their standing in society • Primary base of support is poor Eastern European Jews, who know they’ll never be able to call Russia or Poland “home” • One such supporter is Chaim Weizmann, key activist in Herzl’s movement • Herzl and Weizmann work tirelessly to convince national leaders of their idea • Originally, location of Jewish State does not matter to Herzl, but over time, under pressure from his supporters, he rejects idea of national home anywhere but Palestine • Herzl dies at age 44, old enough to see Zionist movement emerge but too young to see it prevail Chaim Weizmann (1874-1952)

Ottoman Empire on Eve of WWI By 1914, Palestine had been under Ottoman control for 400 years PALESTINE At the time, fewer than 100,000 Jews resided in Palestine, along with 500,000 Arabs

Balfour Declaration (1917) • Weizmann emigrates to England and persistently lobbies British leaders, such as Lloyd George, Arthur Balfour, Winston Churchill and Herbert Samuel, to support Zionism • British receptive due to general tolerance towards Jews and desire to gain Jewish and U.S. support in WWI • In 1917, Foreign Secretary Balfour issues cabinet-approved declaration formalizing U.K. support for Jewish national home in Palestine • Jews fortunate that Herzl’s efforts began 20 yrs before other nationalist movements in Middle East; Arabs not diplomatically organized in 1917 • One year later, Balfour Declaration likely would not have been possible Arthur James Balfour (1848-1930) “His Majesty's government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.” – Balfour Declaration (1917)

British Mandate for Palestine • Following WWI, at negotiations in San Remo, Italy (1920), UK awarded Mandate for Palestine • San Remo resolution incorporates Balfour Declaration • League of Nations formally adopts San Remo resolution and confirms British Mandate (1922) • In the process, Britain carves out area east of Jordan river (“Transjordan”) from Mandate provisions dealing with Jewish national home • Mandate provisions, including Jews’ rights to build settlements, subsequently incorporated into UN Charter (Article 80) (1945)

Jewish Settlement in Palestine • Russian pogroms (1881) lead to “First Aliyah” (25,000-30,000 Jews) • Wealthy Jews, particularly Edmund de Rothschild and Montefiore, subsidize dozens of new agricultural settlements • Jewish National Fund created to purchase land in Palestine for Jewish settlement (1901) • More Russian pogroms (1904) lead to “Second Aliyah” (40,000 Jews) • Tel Aviv officially founded, as is Degania, the 1st kibbutz (1909) • During British Mandate, Jews consistently increase their landholdings in Palestine via legalpurchases, primarily from absentee, non-Palestinian Arab landlords

Revival of Hebrew • For centuries, Hebrew used primarily for religious purposes • Hebrew literature emerges during “Haskalah” (Jewish movement that paralleled Enlightenment movement), but still relies on biblical Hebrew words and style • During 1880s, Mendele Mocher Sfarim (1846-1917) revolutionizes literary Hebrew by relying on Rabbinic (rather than biblical) Hebrew and incorporating influences from Yiddish and other European languages • Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (1858-1922) immigrates to Jerusalem (1881) and actively promotes use and development of Hebrew as modern, spoken language • Immigrants from First Aliyah (1881) and especially, Second Aliyah (1904), many of whom could already read and speak Hebrew, are receptive to Ben-Yehuda’s efforts and widely adopt Hebrew as their spoken tongue • British Mandate recognizes Hebrew as Jews’ official language in Palestine (Nov 1922) Haviv, the first Hebrew school in Israel (established 1886 in Rishon LeZion) “The rebirth of Hebrew as a mother tongue after two millennia is an event unique in sociolinguistic history.” – Prof. Lewis Glinert, Dartmouth College

Eliezer Ben-Yehuda • Born Eliezer Yitzhak Perelman, in Lithuania; learns biblical Hebrew and goes to yeshiva to become rabbi • Becomes more interested in secular studies; leaves yeshiva for Russian school and gains exposure to Hebrew literature and Zionism • Grows interested in national revivals in Balkans and Italy; decides that revival of Hebrew as modern, spoken language could unite Jews and lead to Jewish State in Palestine • Moves to Paris (1878), where he takes advanced Hebrew classes but terminates studies after contracting tuberculosis • Moves to Jerusalem (1881), where he tirelessly promotes Hebrew as the national language of the Jews Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (1858-1922) “In every new event, every step, even the smallest in the path of progress, it is necessary that there be one pioneer who will lead the way without leaving any possibility of turning back.” – Ben-Yehuda, in his newspaper, Hatzvi (1908)

Eliezer Ben-Yehuda • Ben-Yehuda’s efforts include: • Encouraging exclusive use of Hebrew in the home; raises his first son as first all-Hebrew speaking child in modern times • Teaching, exclusively in Hebrew, in local schools and encouraging other teachers to do the same • Publishing a newspaper, “Hatzvi”, in Hebrew • Founding Hebrew Language Council (1890), forerunner to Hebrew Language Academy, the supreme authority on all matters related to Hebrew language • Writing first modern Hebrew dictionary (published posthumously), including many words coined by Ben-Yehuda that gain wide acceptance • Dies of tuberculosis (1922); 30,000 attend his funeral • Legacy as driving force behind Hebrew revival Ben-Yehuda at his desk in Jerusalem “Before Ben‑Yehuda, Jews could speak Hebrew; after him, they did.” – Cecil Roth, in his book, ‘Was Hebrew Ever a Dead Language’

Arab Hostility in pre-WWII Palestine • Under influence of future Palestinian Arab leader Haj Amin al-Husseini, Arabs riot (1920, 1921 and 1924), killing and wounding hundreds of Jews • al-Husseini instigates major riots (1929) by spreading false stories of Jews killing Arabs and plotting to take over their holy sites • 1929 riots kill 135 Jews, including 67 in Hebron (“Hebron Massacre”),and destroy synagogues • In 1936, again with encouragement of al-Husseini, Arabs attack Jews and the British, ultimately leading to major rebellion lasting until 1939 (“Arab Revolt”), which the British violently suppress Survivor ofHebron Massacre (1929)

Haj Amin al-Husseini • After death of Kamil al-Husayni, Mufti of Jerusalem (1921), British High Commissioner Sir Herbert Samuel pardons his half-brother, Haj Amin al-Husseini, from his participation in recent Arab riots • Under recommendation of extreme anti-Zionist British staff member Ernest Richmond, Samuel then appoints al-Husseini as Mufti of Jerusalem in “gesture” to Arabs, even though he received fewest votes out of 3 candidates • Virulently anti-Semitic al-Husseini becomes most prominent leader of Palestinian Arabs until 1948 • Radicalizes Palestinian Arabs, silences (and kills) moderate Palestinians and promotes anti-Zionism in rest of Arab world • Periodically incites Arab massacres of Jews • Meets with Hitler and actively collaborates with him to recruit Muslim support for Nazis Haj Amin al-Husseini (c.1897-1974)

Haj Amin al-Husseini al-Husseini meetingwith Hitler (1941) al-Husseini greetingBosnian Waffen-SS volunteers (1943) “Kill the Jews wherever you find them. This pleases God, history and religion.” – al-Husseini (1944)

British Immigration Policy • Britain periodically restricts Jewish immigration and land purchases to appease local Arabs – especially after Arab riots in 1921 and 1929 • Restrictions later overturned (by Churchill in 1922, MacDonald in 1931), but Jewish immigration still limited based on “absorptive capacity” of the land • During 1936 Arab revolt, Peel Commission (1937) recommends limiting Jewish immigration and land purchases • 1939 White Paper limits Jewish immigration to 75,000 over 5 years, then to cease altogether Rise of Hitler leadsto surge in Jewsseeking to immigrate... …but Britain imposes severe restrictionson immigration Jewish immigration to Palestine(1929-1941)

Ze’ev Jabotinsky • Born Vladimir Jabotinsky, to secular Jewish family in Odessa (1880) • Becomes Zionist after Kishinev Pogrom (1903) and creates self-defense group for Jews in Russia • During WWI, together with Russo-Japanese war hero Joseph Trumpeldor, creates Jewish Legion to fight for British against Ottomans • After WWI, forms Jewish defense group which later becomes the “Haganah” defense force and deploys it against 1920 Arab riots • Founds “Betar” (1923), Jewish nationalist youth group trained in combat, which becomes highly popular in Eastern Europe and produces numerous future leaders of Israel Ze’ev Jabotinsky (1880-1940)

Ze’ev Jabotinsky • Grows dissatisfied with Zionist moderates and their acquiescence to Britain’s severing of Transjordan from Palestinian Mandate • Founds “Union of Zionist-Revisionists” (1925) to maximize Jewish immigration and push for immediate statehood on both banks of Jordan River • After he leaves Palestine for lecture tour in 1929, British never allow Jabotinsky to return Parita ship unloading immigrants at Tel Aviv beach “As long as the Arabs feel that there is the least hope of getting rid of us, they will refuse to give up this hope in return for either kind words or for bread and butter, because they are not a rabble, but a living people. And when a living people yields in matters of such a vital character it is only when there is no longer any hope of getting rid of us, because they can make no breach in the iron wall.” – Jabotinsky (1923)

Ze’ev Jabotinsky • With Hitler’s rise to power, Jabotinsky raises alarm for European Jewry and urges “evacuation” of all Eastern European Jews to Palestine (1936) • Works tirelessly on behalf of Jewish immigration to Palestine (legal and illegal) • Drafts will asking that his remains be moved to Israel “only at the instructions of a Jewish government that shall be established” • Becomes commander of Irgun (1937), underground militia that retaliates against Arab attacks and later fights the British • Dies in New York (1940); remains transferred to Mount Herzl in 1964 • Legacy as forceful and prescient Zionist leader Irgun logo:All of British Mandate and a rifle above the words“only thus” “I continue to warn you incessantly that a catastrophe is coming closer, I became gray and old in these days, my heart bleeds, that you dear brothers and sisters, do not see the volcano which will soon begin to spit its all consuming lava.” – Jabotinsky at a speech to Jews of Warsaw (Oct 1938)

Strains within Zionism pre-1947 • During British Mandate, Jewish leaders have conflicting views regarding Zionist strategy and goals • Weizmann advocates patience and building solid social, educational and economic institutions in Palestine before creating Jewish State • David Ben-Gurion concentrates on founding socialist state settled by secular, agricultural pioneers • Albert Einstein and others argue against statehood; goal should be peaceful co-existence with Arabs • Ze’ev Jabotinski focuses on maximizing immigration (without regard to type of immigrant) and rapidly achieving statehood Weizmann & Einstein(1921)

Peel Commission (1937) • During 1936-1939 Arab Revolt, British delegation headed by Earl Peel recommends partition, end to Mandate (except for Jerusalem-Jaffa corridor) (1937) • Jewish State to include coastal strip, Galilee, Jezreel Valley • Arab State to include hill regions, Negev, Judea & Samaria • Commission recommends restricting Jewish immigration (12,000/yr) and land purchases, as well as population transfer • Arabs reject proposal and subsequently intensify revolt; Jews are divided • British initially accept proposal, but later dismiss it as impractical (1938)

Jewish Support for Britain • After shelving Peel report, British issue 1939 White Paper severely restricting Jewish immigration and land purchases and recommending formation of independent Palestine with small Jewish minority • Jews denounce this repudiation of Balfour Declaration, but temporarily put aside resistance against Britain (other than illegal immigration) to help defeat Nazis • Weizmann pushes British to form Jewish military force to assist in WWII, but army repeatedly refuses until Churchill forces the issue and forms Jewish Brigade with 25,000 members (1944) Jewish Brigade guardingGerman POWs in Italy (1945) “I like the idea of the Jews trying to get at the murderers of their fellow countrymen in Central Europe. It is with the Germans that they have their quarrel…I cannot conceive why this martyred race scattered about the world and suffering as no other race has done at this juncture should be denied the satisfaction of having a flag.” – Churchill (1944)

Jewish Resistance to Britain • As WWII ends, Jewish resistance to Britain increases, led by 3 organizations: Haganah, Irgun and Stern Gang • Haganah focused on promoting illegal immigration, military training, sabotage • Irgun attacks British installations but generally seeks to avoid civilian casualties • Stern Gang, offshoot of Irgun, takes more radical action, including assassinations • Movements briefly unite (1945-46), but split again after King David Hotel bombing • After British raid Jewish Agency and arrest 2,500+ Jews, Irgun bombs British admin & military HQ at King David Hotel • Warning calls given, but hotel not evacuated; 91 killed, including 17 Jews King David Hotelafter bombing (July 1946)

UN Partition Plan (1947) • UK tires of Mandate; announces it will turn over Palestine issue to UN (Feb 1947) • Palestine issue put before UN committee (May 1947), which recommends partition into Jewish and Arab states and international zone in Jerusalem • General Assembly votes in favor (Nov 1947);33 to 13, with 10 abstentions • Strong support from Truman (despite objections from State and Defense Departments) and Soviets (seeking to establish socialist state and reduce UK influence in Middle East) • Jewish Agency and majority of Jews support the partition; Palestinians and Muslim states oppose

Nov 1947- May 1948 War • Local Arabs and foreign Arab volunteers begin attacking Jewish communities after partition vote • Arabs blockade isolated Jewish communities, including Jerusalem (100,000 Jews) • Initially, Haganah reacts defensively, focuses on protecting Jews and supplying isolated areas • In April 1948, Ben-Gurion orders Haganah to move to the offense to link up Jewish enclaves, leading to decisive victory by middle of May • During the war, over 200,000 Palestinian Arabs flee from their homes “Personally I hope the Jews do not force us into this war because it will be a war of elimination and it will be a dangerous massacre which history will record similarly to the Mongol massacre or the wars of the Crusades.” – Azzam Pasha, secretary-general of the Arab league (1947)

Declaration of Independence (1948) “By virtue of our national and intrinsic right, and on the strength of the resolution of the United Nations General Assembly, we hereby declare the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine, which shall be known as the State of Israel.” – David Ben-Gurion (May 14, 1948)

War of Independence (1948) • Hours after declaring independence, Israel attacked by Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon & Iraq • Arabs have tremendous weapons superiority • British actively assist Jordanian forces • Jordan captures Old City of Jerusalem • Irgun and Stern Gang unite with Haganah, renamed “Israel Defense Forces” • After initial setbacks, IDF halts invasion and launches successful counter-offensive • Fighting ends Dec 1948; Arabs sign armistice agreements in Feb-Jul 1949 • At end of war, Israel is 5,000km2 larger than land allotted to it under UN Partition Plan “The best we can tell you is that we have a 50-50 chance.” – Chief of Operations Yigal Yadin to Ben-Gurion 1949 Armistice Lines

Altalena Affair (1948) • Irgun buys Altalena to smuggle weapons and ~900 fighters from France • While ship is en route, Irgun is absorbed into IDF (June 1948) • Head of Irgun, Menachem Begin, requests that weapons be allocated to Irgun battalions within IDF; Ben-Gurion rejects request and demands that all weapons be handed to IDF • Ben-Gurion orders IDF to take ship by force; IDF shells Altalena, setting it on fire • Fighting kills 16 Irgun and 3 IDF soldiers • Begin orders forces not to retaliate; Irgun fully integrates into IDF (Sept 1948) Altalena in flames after being shelled (June 1948) “There will never be a civil war.” – Menachem Begin, after the Altalena affair

David Ben-Gurion • Born David Gruen, to Zionist family in Russian Poland; becomes active member of Zionist youth groups • Emigrates to Palestine (1906), where he is elected to central committee of Social-Democratic Jewish Workers’ Party (“Poalei Zion”) • Advocates Jewish nationalism grounded in a collectivist society • Helps establish first Jewish self-defense group in Palestine (“Hashomer”) • Expelled by Ottomans (1915); joins Jewish Legion to support British in WWI • Returns to Palestine (1918), where he becomes head of Histadrut, Israel’s dominant trade union • Becomes leader of newly-formed “Mapai” party (Zionist labor party) (1930) David Ben-Gurion (1886-1973)

David Ben-Gurion • Becomes chairman of Jewish Agency (de facto government of Palestine’s Jews pre-1948) • Under his leadership, Labor becomes strongest movement within World Zionist Organization • Focuses on Jewish immigration, establishing settlements and building defense forces • Generally supports cooperating with British, but moves to resistance after White Paper issued (1939) • Oversees Israel’s military operations during 1947-1948 War and War of Independence • Largely responsible for creating Israel’s state institutions and guiding its path to statehood Ben-Gurion declaringIsrael’s independence (May 1948) “All our aspirations are built upon the assumption – proven throughout all our activity in the Land –that there is enough room in the country for ourselves and the Arabs.” – Ben-Gurion (1937)

Palestinian Refugees • From 1947 Partition Resolution until end of War of Independence, 550,000-650,000 Arabs flee Israel (~70% of them to West Bank & Gaza) • Most leave either to escape the fighting or due to encouragement of Arab leaders, who: • Ask them to make way for invading armies • Accuse Arabs who stay behind of “treachery” • Fabricate/exaggerate reports of Jewish atrocities, particularly after Deir Yassin massacre • Arab leaders promise refugees they will be able to return to their homes after “swift victory” • Small minority of Arabs leave due to expulsion by IDF or threat of force by IDF Palestinian refugees (1948)

Arab Encouragement of Exodus “We will smash the country with our guns and obliterate every place the Jews seek shelter in. The Arabs should conduct their wives and children to safe areas until the fighting has died down” – Iraqi PM Nuri Said “Since 1948 we have been demanding the return of the refugees to their homes. But we ourselves are the ones who encouraged them to leave” – Syrian PM Haled Al-Azm (1973) “Various factors influenced [Haifa Arabs’] decision to seek safety in flight. There is but little doubt that the most potent of the factors were the announcements made over the air by the Higher Arab Executive, urging the Arabs to quit....It was clearly intimated that those Arabs who remained in Haifa and accepted Jewish protection would be regarded as renegades” – The Economist magazine (October 1948)

Deir Yassin • During 1947-1948 war, Jerusalem’s Jews under siege; food shortage critical by Apr 1948 • On April 9, poorly-trained forces of Irgun and Stern Gang attack Deir Yassin (small Arab village); goal is to conquer it and open supply route to Jerusalem • Local villagers, helped by foreign Arab soldiers, fiercely resist the assault • 107 villagers killed; some by indiscriminate fire, others killed after the fighting ended • Arab leaders deliberately exaggerate scale of the massacre and fabricate reports of rape in order to inflame foreign Arab opinion • These reports unintentionally sow panic among Palestinians, causing many to flee Deir Yassin after the attack (April 1948) “This was our biggest mistake. We did not realize how our people would react. As soon as they heard that women had been raped at Deir Yassin, Palestinians fled in terror. They ran away from all our villages.” – Hazam Nusseibeh (1998), news editor of Palestine Broadcasting Service at the time of the attack

Palestinian Refugees: Aftermath • After War of Independence, Israel expresses willingness to repatriate portion of refugees as part of peace agreement that would include resettling portion of refugees in Arab countries • Arabs reject resettlement and peace agreement • U.N. sets up “U.N. Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East” (UNRWA) (1949) to provide aid to refugees • UNRWA extends definition of “Palestinian refugee” to include descendants, unlike all other refugees • Today, number of “refugees” exceeds 5 million • Jordan is only Arab country to date to provide citizenship to refugees “The Arab States do not want to solve the refugee problem. They want to keep it as an open sore, as an affront to the UN and as a weapon against Israel. Arab leaders don't give a damn whether the refugees live or die.” – Sir Alexander Galloway, former UNRWA official (1952)

Jewish Refugees • 1947 Partition Resolution leads to pogroms across Arab countries • From 1948 until early 1970s, over 800,000 Jews flee from Arab countries due to combination of expulsion, violence and repression • Over 70% of Jewish refugees absorbed by Israel, where they are given citizenship • Initially housed in tent camps and transit camps • Refugees pose enormous burden on nascent Jewish state, but are gradually absorbed into society (without any UN support) Israeli Transit Camp (1950) “The lives of one million Jews in Muslim countries would be jeopardized by partition, which might create anti-Semitism in those countries even more difficult to root out than the anti-Semitism which the Allies tried to eradicate in Germany.” – Egyptian delegate to UN (1947)

Israeli Airlifts of Jewish Refugees Operation Magic Carpet Operations Ezra & Nehemiah Israel airlifts 49,000 Jews from Yemen (1949-50) Israel airlifts 130,000 Jews from Iraq (1950-52) “Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh.” – Israel’s Law of Return (1950)

Dead Sea Scrolls • Bedouin shepherd discovers 7 scrolls in cave at Qumran, near Dead Sea (1947); sells them to antique dealers, who later sell them to Jewish archaeologists Sukenik (1948) and Yadin (1954) • Additional scrolls discovered (1949-1956), bringing total to 972 • Scrolls kept in E. Jerusalem museum, controlled by Jordan until Israel unites Jerusalem in Six-Day War (1967); Israel currently owns most scrolls • Scrolls date from late Second Temple era (~ 200 BC – 100 AD) and consist of earliest copies of Old Testament books, non-Biblical works and contemporary documents • Scrolls widely considered to have been written by Essenes, an ascetic Jewish sect who hid the scrolls during revolt against Romans (~70 AD) • Scrolls are invaluable source of info regarding Jewish life during Second Temple era Qumran cave #4, in which 90% of Dead Sea Scrolls found “Isaiah Scroll” containing complete Book of Isaiah

Fedayeen Attacks (1951-1956) • Palestinian terrorists known as fedayeen (“self-sacrificers”) periodically infiltrate Israel from Syria, West Bank, Gaza and Egypt to attack soldiers and civilians (starting in 1951) • Egypt, under leadership of Gamal Abdel Nasser (colonel who led 1952 military coup), begins to train and support fedayeen (1954) • Over 400 Israelis are killed and 900 wounded in fedayeen raids (1951-1956) • Ben-Gurion creates “Unit 101”, led by Ariel Sharon, to launch cross-border raids in retaliation against fedayeen attacks (1953) “Egypt has decided to dispatch her heroes, the disciples of Pharaoh and the sons of Islam and they will cleanse the land of Palestine....There will be no peace on Israel's border because we demand vengeance, and vengeance is Israel's death.” – Nasser (1955)

Suez War (1956) • In defiance of 1949 armistice agreement and UN resolutions, Egypt closes Suez Canal to Israeli shipping and blockades Straits of Tiran • Nasser begins to import Soviet arms, leading US to withdraw funding for building Aswan Dam • In response, Nasser nationalizes Suez Canal, which was owned by UK and France (Jul 1956) • Egypt signs agreement with Syria and Jordan, giving it command over all 3 armies (Oct 1956) • In response to Egypt’s blockades, sponsorship of fedayeen attacks and belligerent declarations, Israel attacks Egypt (Oct 29, 1956) • Israel has secret backing of UK and France, who sought to topple Nasser and regain canal Gamel Abdel Nasser (1918-1970) “The Arab people will not be embarrassed to declare: We shall not be satisfied except by the final obliteration of Israel from the map of the Middle East.” – Egyptian Foreign Minister (1954)

Suez War (1956) • Israel captures Gaza and virtually all of Sinai in 8 days • UK and France bomb Egypt and land paratroops near canal zone, but withdraw quickly due to massive US pressure • US previously asked UK and France not to attack Egypt after canal nationalization • US wants diplomatic cover to criticize USSR’s suppression of Hungarian uprising • Israel refuses to withdraw, prompting major crisis with US, but ultimately relents (Mar 1957) in exchange for US commitment to maintain freedom of Suez Canal navigation and stationing of UN peacekeepers in Sinai • Suez War leads to increase in prestige of Nasser and USSR in Middle East

Eichmann Trial (1960-1962) • Senior Nazi in charge of managing logistics of Holocaust, especially deportation of Jews to death camps • Avoids Nuremberg Trials and escapes to Argentina as “Ricardo Klement” (1950) • Mossad tipped off to his whereabouts and sends team to Argentina (1959); team captures Eichmann and covertly flies him to Israel (1960) • In highly emotional trial, Eichmann convicted on all counts and becomes only person Israel ever sentenced to death (1961) • Hanged; ashes scattered at sea (1962) Eichmann on trial inbulletproof chamber (1961) “…the so-called Final Solution would never have assumed the infernal forms of the flayed skin and tortured flesh of millions of Jews without the fanatical zeal and the unquenchable blood thirst of the appellant and his associates.” – excerpt from verdict by Israel’s Supreme Court (1962)

Palestinian Attacks (pre-1967) • Yasser Arafat co-founds Fatah(“conquest”)in Kuwait (1959) in order to “liberate Palestine” • Backed by Syria and operating from Jordan, Lebanon and Gaza, Fatah launches dozens of attacks per year against Israeli civilians (starting in 1964) • Separately, Palestine Liberation Organization founded in East Jerusalem (1964), with support of Nasser, to represent Palestinian national cause • Fatah grows to become dominant faction within PLO Yasser Arafat (1929-2004) Palestine National Charter (1964) “The Balfour Declaration, the Palestine Mandate System, and all that has been based on them are considered null and void. The claims of historic and spiritual ties between Jews and Palestine are not in agreement with the facts of history or with the true basis of sound statehood.” – Article 18 “Zionism is a colonialist movement in its inception, aggressive and expansionist in its goal, racist in its configurations, and fascist in its means and aims.” – Article 19 PLO logo

Eli Cohen • Born in Egypt to Syrian Jews; moves to Israel (1956) • Recruited by military intelligence and transferred to Mossad for training (1960); given new identity as Kamel Amin Tha’abet, a Syrian living in Argentina • Moves to Buenos Aires (1961) and then to Damascus (1962); befriends Syria’s political and military elite • Given private, senior-level tour of Golan Heights, where he memorizes Syrian military positions • Provides invaluable intelligence to Israel on Syrian military plans and preparations to divert Jordan River headwaters • Syria hires Soviet experts to discover intelligence leak; Soviets detect Cohen’s radio transmission to Israel • Syria captures Cohen, tries him in show trial, tortures and hangs him (1965); body never returned to Israel Eli Cohen (1924-1965) Israel’s greatest spy

Prelude to Six-Day War (1967) • Syria shells Israel from Golan Heights (1965-1967); in retaliatory raid, Israel downs 6 Syrian fighter jets (Apr 1967) • Based on false info provided by USSR about Israel’s plans, Syria readies for war and asks Egypt for support • Nasser amasses forces and orders UN to leave Sinai (May 16); UN complies • Egypt closes Straits of Tiran to Israeli and Israel-bound ships, an act of war (May 18) • Israeli forces stay mobilized for weeks, at great cost • US, France impose arms embargo on Mideast, mostly affecting Israel; Soviets heavily arm Arabs Relative strength ofArab and Israeli militaries (Jun 1967) 550k 2,500 265k 960 1,100 300

A Brief History of the Jewish State