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Wireless Networks - Principle Characteristics

Wireless Networks - Principle Characteristics Provide network access without wires – to reduce cost of wiring, support inherently mobile devices – palms, laptops, PDAs. Use unconstrained media (e.g., radio) for transmission – no wires Three major system classes

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Wireless Networks - Principle Characteristics

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  1. Wireless Networks - Principle Characteristics • Provide network access without wires – to reduce cost of wiring, • support inherently mobile devices – palms, laptops, PDAs. • Use unconstrained media (e.g., radio) for transmission – no wires • Three major system classes • Wide Area Networks (WAN) – world–wide (global) in extent • Local Area Networks (LAN) – campus-wide in extent • Personal Area Networks (PAN) – office-wide in extent • Relatively new technologies –first developed in the mid-80s • Strongly support personal mobility – locally to globally • Many protocols, technologies, and implementations (new) • Standards relatively immature • Many security problems at all levels – theory, standards, • implementation Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  2. Wireless Threats Denial of Service – radio frequency jamming or message flooding Interception – eavesdrop since the signals are broadcast over the air Manipulation – changing messages Masquerading – posing as a legitimate user to enter a network Any wireless system should protect against these threats in the basic system design, implementation, and operational environment Some do well, others are in bad shape! Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  3. Wireless Networks - Fundamentals Mobile Devices Radio Transmission Path Cell Phone Network Palm Pilot Destination Network Access Point Wire Transmission Path Laptop Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  4. Wireless Wide Area Networks (WAN) • Started with cellular phones (U.S.,1982) • 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G • Protocols - many • AMPS, TDMA, CDMA, GSM, CDPD, GPRS,UMT-2000,… • Rapid Growth – “By 2002, wireless phones worldwide will outnumber TVs and PCs combined.” • Strategic News Service WANWide Area Network(National/Global) Licensed, 800-900 Mhz, 1.8-1.9 Ghz Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  5. Wireless Wide Area Networks (WAN) • Started with cell phones – many technologies & standards • Progressed through multiple generations • Analog voice phones • Digital voice phones • Web-enabled phones • Despite multiple generations, technology is still immature and • changing dynamically (e.g., web access from a cell phone) • Many providers – crowded market • Interoperability a mixed bag – some good, some bad • Some very differentiated products (voice-only, data only, mixed) • Don’t expect convergence anytime soon Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  6. Wireless Devices and Selected Characteristics NetworkBandwidth(kbps) PurchaseCost ($) Network Service($/device-yr) WirelessDevice Key Features Access PointPalm VIIBlackberryDigital PhoneCDPD Modem na500500125500 From fees240400360480 661919 carrier ownedno Outllook, coverageOutlook, coveragevoice, CDPD-WAPgood coverage WAN Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  7. Blackberry Handheld Devices – Single purpose device Wireless e-mail using Microsoft Exchange Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  8. A Specific Service - Blackberry Real-time messaging 1. Colleague sends urgent message to you 2. Sent to Exchange servers 3. Received at your desktop PC (if on) 4. Encrypted and sent through the internet 5. Transmitted by Blackberry network 6. Blackberry receives and decrypts message for you 4 5 Blackberry Network Internet 6 You 2 3 Colleague's Office YourOffice Firewall 1 Outlook/ExchangeServers Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  9. Blackberry Architecture Blackberry Server Exchange Server User’s Desktop Internet Blackberry Handheld Firewall Wireless Network Access Point Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  10. Blackberry Architecture – How It Works • Mail arrives at the user’s desktop in the usual way • Blackberry software is installed on the user’s desktop and configured • according to user-specified filtering/forwarding rules • Messages to be forwarded are compressed and encrypted and forwarded to • the Blackberry enterprise server that maintains an outbound connection to • the Blackberry network (through the firewall and Internet) • Messages are forwarded and displayed on the Blackberry handheld • Similarly, messages can be originated on the handheld, sent back to the • user’s desktop and sent out over the mail connection. • Can operate in two modes • Wireless LAN mode - as described above • Directly between two handheld devices (peer-to-peer) Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  11. Blackberry Protection • Peer-to-peer mode is not secure (scrambled, but not encrypted) • Wireless network mode: • Symmetric encryption with key shared between desktop & handheld • 3 DES encryption method, key exchange while handheld is docked • Server is behind firewall, only supports outbound connections, followed • by out-bound/in-bound communications Unsecured Path Secured Path Blackberry User’s Desktop Another User Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  12. Wireless Local Area Network (LAN) WANWide Area Network(National/Global) Local Area Network (LAN) • IEEE Standards • 802.11, 1998 (2 Mbps) • 802.11b, 1999 (11 Mbps) • 802.11a, 1999 (54 Mbps) • Interface Prices • $500 – 1997 (2 Mbps) • $160 – 2000 (11 Mbps) • Wireless Options Today • Laptops - Apple, Dell, Gateway, IBM, Compaq, Acer… LANLocal Area Network(Campus/Building) Unlicensed, 900 Mhz, 2.4 Ghz, 5 Ghz Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  13. Wireless Local Area Network (LAN) • Work untethered • Improve productivity by saving time (use idle time, minimize meeting prep time) • Have real-time access for urgent messages and key information Lab/Conference Room You Wireless Access Point YourOffice LAN Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  14. Local Area Networks (LAN) • Function – wireless equivalent to Ethernet Local Area Network • Based on IEEE standard 802.11 series • 802.11 – 1997, data rates to 2 Mb/s (outdated) • 802.11b - 1999, data rates to 11 Mb/s (available now) • 802.11g - 2000, data rates to 22 Mb/s (available 2002) • 802.11a - emerging, data rates to 54 Mb/s (available late 2001) • 802.11b is dominant technology being implemented. • Part of the specification is the Wired Equivalent Protocol (WEP) • designed to protect link layer (over-the-air) traffic from • eavesdropping and other attacks (in the words of the IEEE • specification). Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  15. IEEE 802.11 Standard The standard describes the Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) specifications. 802.11 is one part of the 802 Specification as shown below. 802.2 Logical Link Control 802.1 Bridging Data Link Layer 802.3 Meduim Access 802.3 Physical 802.4 Meduim Access 802.4 Physical 802.5 Meduim Access 802.5 Physical 802.6 Meduim Access 802.6 Physical 802.9 Meduim Access 802.9 Physical 802.11 Meduim Access 802.11 Physical 802.12 Meduim Access 802.12 Physical Physical Layer Ethernet Token Bus Token Ring Dual Bus Integrated Wireless Demand Services Priority Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  16. 802.11 Wireless Local Area Network (LAN) • Three (3) possible physical layers are specified: • Infared (short range – line of sight) • Frequency Hopping Spread spectrum (FHSS) • Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) • Three frequency bands are used; 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5 GHz • 802.11b uses DSSS and the 2.4 GHz frequency band • This frequency band is the unregulated Industrial, Scientific, and Medical • (ISM) band – possibility for interference. Range is a few 100 - 300 feet – • multiple access points provide campus coverage (like cell phones) • 802.11b data rate is 11 Mb/s, but performance varies as a function of • distance between the mobile device and the nearest access point • The specified protocol is Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision • Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  17. High Level Architecture Wireless Application Servers To additional Network Segments Wired Network R Access Point Access Point Wireless Handheld (WinCE or Palm) Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  18. High Level Architecture – Text Mobile device (Personal Digital Assistant, laptop, Palm Pilot, etc.) requires a radio frequency transmitting/receiving modem and client software compatible with the IEEE standard. Access point is a bridge between the backside wired network and the frontside wireless network. It transmits and receives wireless protocol frames, does error control, authenticates and authorizes users, encrypts wireless traffic, interfaces to the wired network Laptop modem Access point Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  19. Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) – 802.11 security • According to the standard, particular attention was paid to: • Defeating an adversaries ability to eavesdrop on wireless transmissions in • order to preserve confidentiality by encrypting the channel traffic • Providing integrity assurance that a message has not been modified in • transit, and • Authenticating users over an encrypted channel Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  20. Eavesdropping – 802.11 security • Since transmissions are broadcast over the airwaves, signals can be • intercepted. Interception methods are different for each physical layer. • It has been argued that interception is difficult for infared because of line-of- • sight and short distance requirements, Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum • and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum because of the psuedo-random • nature of the signal spreading. • Reality is that any device designed to receive/transmit 802.11 signals is • capable of intercepting all signals from a wireless network. • It is a simple matter to modify devices drivers and/or flash memory to operate • the device in promiscuous mode. Basic assumption – adversaries have access • to all signals transmitted between access points and mobile devices! Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  21. Eavesdropping Encrypted 802.11 Transmissions • Eavesdropping is defeated if the signals are not intelligible – 802.11 encrypts • transmissions using RC4 developed in 1987 by Ron Rivest at MIT and is • Considered a secure cipher. Reviewing: • The RC4 algorithm was kept secret for the first 7 years, but was anonymously • posted to the Cypherpunks mailing list in 1994 and became public knowledge. • RC4 is a symmetric cipher and can use several different key lengths. The • 802.11 specification allows for 40 bit (export controlled) and longer, typically • 128 bit lengths although specific lengths and implementations can vary by • vendor. • RC4 is generally considered a strong cipher. The 802.11 implementation • operates in Output Feedback (OFB) mode. Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  22. RC4 – Operated in Output Feedback mode Ij Oj-1 Oj-1 Ij IV E E-1 Key Key Leftmost r bits Leftmost r bits Oj Oj   Plaintext pj Ciphertext cj Plaintext pj Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  23. RC4 – Text description The RC4 algorithm has three (3) inputs: a random initialing vector IV, the random secret key k, and the plaintext P The IV is input to E, the RC4 encryption algorithm along with the key and E produces a random keystream that is sent to the output box O. The output box shifts the keystream out a Byte at a time and each Byte is combined with a Byte of plaintext under the Exclusive OR function. The output of E (the keystream) is also fed back to the I stage which causes The keystream to vary as a function of IV and the plaintext. The process is reversed at the receiver. Both the IV value and the key must be known to the receiver. Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  24. RC4 – more The secret key is initially distributed to the access point and the mobile device. The method is not specified by the IEEE 802.11 standard, but should be secret. The IV which changes for each session, is sent in the clear as part of the initial handshake. The IV does not have to be secret since the strength of the algorithm is derived from the algorithm and key, not IV. However, the integrity of the IV must be a maintained between the transmitter and receiver or the encrytpion/decryption breaks - won’t work. Also, the IV should not be re-used with the same key schedule. Consider 2 messages: C1 = P1 RC4(IV1, K1) & C2 = P2  RC4(IV1, K1) C1  C2 = (P1  RC4(IV1, K1))  (P2  RC4(IV1, K1)) That is, the EXOR of 2 ciphertexts will produce the EXOR of the two plaintexts. If one of the plaintexts is known, the second are revealed. Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  25. Authentication in 802.11 • Two basic levels of authentication • Open System Authentication – the default that authenticates • any device requesting authentication – essentially “none” • Shared-Key Authentication – The mobile device and the access point • mutually authenticate to each other. Three state process: • Unauthenticated & unassociated • Authenticated and unassociated • Authenticated and associated • Involves passing messages between a mobile station and an access point. Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  26. Authentication Messages Initiator (STA) Responder (AP) Authentication Request – Sequence # 1 Authentication Challenge – Sequence # 2 Authentication Response – Sequence # 3 Authentication Result – Sequence # 4 Challenge is a psuedo-random number, must be re-played by the initiator. If successful, the process is repeated in reverse (i.e., mutual authentication) Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  27. Integrity Assurance – No change in transit An integrity checksum is computed for each message exchanged between a station and an access point. If the checksum computed over the packet does not match the appended Checksum, the packet is discarded and re-transmission requested. All of this sounds reasonable on the surface. Certainly the goals of authentication, integrity, and confidentiality are the appropriate one for protecting the information. So…how does the standard and its implementation stack up? TERRIBLE!!!!!!!!!!! Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  28. The Problems – High level The authentication exchange reveals the secret key. It is trivial to mount a known plaintext attack on the network to recover keys Integrity is not cryptographically assured – messages can be modified without being readily detected. Finally, many wireless networks are being operated using open authentication without authentication or encryption. They are optional parts of the standard, not mandatory. Only the weak checksum is mandatory. So….How do we break such a network? Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  29. Authentication Breaks • We discussed the 4 message exchange earlier. The break works like this: • The first frame is sent in the clear to request authentication – thats Ok. • The challenge response is returned by the AP – the challenge is not • encrypted. The challenge is generated by combining a random number, • an IV, and the shared key and is sent in the clear. • The responding station, extracts the challenge, puts it into a response • frame, encrypts it with the shared key using a new IV (sent in the clear) • and sends it back. • The AP decrypts, checks integrity checksum and compares the challenge • to the original – if successful, authentication of the station is successful. • An adversary need only capture the clear text challenge and the ciphertext • challenge response. Knowing the IV, the attacker can derive the keystream. • The adversary can now create a valid response to a new challenge and join • the network. Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  30. Encryption Breaks • One of the issues with Output FeedBack (OFB) mode stream encryption is that • encrypting two messages under the same IV and key can reveal information • about both. • The IV is transmitted in the clear, so it is available. If the IV is a good random • number and not re-used, it is protected. Trouble is the IV: • Is often initialized to 0 in some implementations (no standard requirement) • It is only 24 bits long. If initialized to 0, then it wraps around mod 24. • Doing the math 224 x 2346 B/packet = ~40GB (~320 Gb). • The network has a capacity to do about 432 Gb per day • The adversary can send a message to the network (known plaintext) and sniff • the ciphertext since the network will encrypt it for him (her). Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  31. Encryption Breaks - contd Then the adversary sniff the network for another instance of the same IV used for the known plaintext message and recovers that ciphertext. Now the adversary has a known plaintext/ciphertext pair encrypted with the same secret key and can recover the key. Since the keys are shared and typically manually distributed, they don’t change very often. That in itself is a problem – multiple users with the same key and difficulty in manually distributing keys tend to influence long time key use Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  32. Encryption Breaks - Recap • Send a plaintext message to a user on the wireless network and sniff the • network for the message. Moderate difficulty, trivial with insider help. • 2. Capture the IV (sent in the clear) and ciphertext. • 3. Sniff the network for another instance of the same IV with the original • message. Not difficult, but may require significant storage space. • 4. On a hit, the adversary has: • Original plaintext/ciphertext pair encrypted with the secret key. • IV and new ciphertext encrypted with the same key. • C1 = P1 RC4(IV1, K1) & C2 = P2  RC4(IV1, K1) • C1  C2 = (P1  RC4(IV1, K1))  (P2  RC4(IV1, K1)) • C1, C2, P1, and certainty that the same IV & key were used. • Then C1  C2  P1 = P2 Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  33. Encryption Breaks - Recap Test: Does C1  C2  P1 = P2? Assume P1= 0010, P2 = 0100; Keystream for IV, K = 1100 C1 = 0010  1100 = 1110 C2 = 0100  1100 = 1000 C1  C2  P1 = 1110  1000  0010 = 0100 --- QED Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  34. Integrity Assurance The standarduses the following format: Message CRC-32  Keystream = IV Ciphertext Transmitted Data Stream Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  35. 802.11 Frame Formats Octets: 2 2 6 6 6 2 0 – 2312 4 Seq. No. Frame Control Dest. Address Source Address FCS Duration BSSID Frame Body Frame Control: Version #; Frame type (control,data, management); sub-type; and numerous flags Duration: Destination Address: Source Address: BSSID: Sequence Number: Frame Body: FCS: Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  36. Improving Wireless Security – IEEE 802.1x In 802.11 users authenticate to access points and this is subject to the flaws we have already discussed. IEEE 802.1x describes an authentication method that is much stronger. Even better, it applies to wired networks as well as wireless networks. The authentication method is called Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) Over LANs (EAP-OL). It is an extension of EAP that was originally defined for dial-up authentication Using the Point-to-Point Protocol PPP (see RFC 2284). It is also know as port authentication. Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  37. Wired & Wireless Access Authentication Consider the following wired and wireless network connections: Wired Link Port HUB Wireless Access Point (WAP) Wireless Link Port Hub: Ethernet hub (or switch) with wired connections to desktop machines. WAP: Wireless Access Point with wireless connections to wireless-equipped Devices (e.g., laptops, PDAS, etc.). Authentication:Provided by the port device or by a service called by the port device. Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  38. Wired & Wireless Authentication In an Ethernet wired network and a Windows environment, a system enters the network at bootup, by sending a request to the local network segment domain controller (found in the system configuration files). The domain controller prompts the system for authentication credentials (e.g., a username password pair). On success, the system is authenticated. In an 802.1 wireless network, the system associates with an access point and The access point authenticates the wireless system and allows/denies entry. As we have seen, the wireless method is easily defeated. IEEE 802.1x provides a method to call a stronger authenticator and will work with either a wired or wireless network. Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  39. IEEE 802.1X Authentication User Hub or Access Point (AP) Authentication Server (AS) 1 2 3 4 Step 1: Using EAP, the user requests authentication. The Hub or AP forwards the request to the AS. Step 2: The AS issues a request for an authenticator (password, token, etc.). Step 3: The user presents the authenticator. Step 4: The AS authenticates or denies the access request and send the result back to the AP and the user. If authentication succeeds, the AP opens a port for the user. All traffic is encrypted. Session keys are created by the AS and used by the user and AP. Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

  40. IEEE 802.1X Authentication The Authentication Server is specified in the standard as a RADIUS server. RADIUS = Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service RADIUS is the subject of two RFCs, 2138 and 2865. RFC 2865 is the current RFC and it describes the operations and protocols supported by a RADIUS server. Chapter 16 Wireless Networks

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