IS8004

1. IS8004 Seminar 1: Introduction and the Road Ahead

2. Topics 1. Introduction to Business Research Methods and Associated Issues. 2. Types of qualitative data (sources) and analytical techniques 3. Dissection of a typical qualitative research paper 4. Proposal development 5. Focus on Methods 1: Issues in the Field 6. Focus on Methods 2: Case Study 7. Focus on Methods 3: Ethnography 8. Focus on Methods 4: Canonical Action Research 9. Theory and qualitative research (Guest speaker?) 10. Planning and writing qualitative research 11. Mixing methods, data sources and epistemologies 12. Reviewing and presenting qualitative research 13. Presenting student proposals

3. Assessment • In-class Participation – 40% • This is not an attendance mark. You need to participate actively. • In-class Critical Analysis – 30% • Each of you will need to present a critical analysis of one Qualitative Research paper towards the end of the semester • Proposal Development – 30% • Each of you will need to develop and present a research proposal that involves qualitative data

4. Expectations • Learning attitude • I do expect that you will read set readings before class, so that you come prepared • I do expect that you will participate actively in classes. There are very few “correct” answers. There are many possibilities. You will learn more if you participate. • Attendance • It is advisable. If you can’t come, please email me in advance to let me know – and give a good justification.

5. Research and Methods • In order to tackle a research problem it is conventional to apply a method. • A method is simply a way of doing something. • There are many methods, and each has a prescribed set of rules about how it should be applied. • There is no one ‘best’ method. Each method is appropriate for different situations. Sometimes, methods can be applied in combination. • Just as important as the method is the researcher – who applies the method.

6. The Research Process • In undertaking research, we attempt to maximise the • Generalizability • Realism • Precision • of the process • However, doing all three is considered to be impossible and is known as the three-horned dilemma

7. For Instance • Experiments (in the lab) • Have very weak realism and generalizability • But very strong control • Field studies • Are high on realism, often not high on generalizability • And very low on control

8. Research and Methods • Methods can be classified in different ways: • Type of data • Quantitative or Qualitative • Type of data analysis • Coding, Hermeneutic, Grounded, Metaphorical,… • Epistemology • Positivist, Interpretivist, Critical • Role of researcher • Observer, Intervenor • Sample methods • Case Study, Action Research, Ethnography

9. Types of Data • Quantitative (numerical) Data • Objective data, e.g. $, £, %, n • Used to describe specific objective measures, e.g. of individual or organisational performance • Subjective data, e.g. SA = 1, 31/100 • Used to describe subjective perceptions of situations • Transformative data, e.g. Σ, σ, x+y • Used in statistics so as to calculate results – for later further analysis.

10. Types of Data • Qualitative • Interviews • Un/Semi-structured; Telephone, IM, ftf; Researcher + Subject(s) • Notes and observations • Text, Audio or Video; Researcher • Diaries • Data Subject • Documents • Usually organisation; Text, Audio or Video • User-generated data • Data Subject; Text, Audio or Video • Emails/SMS/IM/Wiki • Researcher and Data Subject(s)

11. Data Coding • Organising data so that it can be analysed • Looking for patterns in data • Thematic • Semiotic • Metaphorical • So as to identify theoretical constructs, as well as practical examples to illustrate existing theory.

12. Hermeneutics • Hermeneutics • Interpretation of written texts; also verbal/non-verbal communication, multimedia, etc. • The texts are created in a social context • The hermeneutic circle • The dialectic between the understanding of the text as a whole and the interpretation of its parts, in which descriptions are guided by anticipated explanations • The aim of the hermeneutic analysis involves trying to make sense of the whole, and the relationship between people, the organization, and information technology.

13. Semiotics • Semiotics • The study of signs • E.g. red = hot; blue = cold • E.g. Monastic Sign Languages (Sebeok) • Semaphore • Content analysis • The researcher searches for structures and patterned regularities in the text and makes inferences on the basis of these regularities. • Intertextuality • Comparing patterns across documents

14. Metaphor • The concept of understanding one thing in terms of another. • Her eyes were glistening diamonds • The system died • Shoot the competition! • Killer apps • Fly High with Business Knowledge • We should embrace IT • This function is a cornerstone of the programme • Employees immersed in an IT training course

15. Grounded Theory • … is a research method that seeks to develop theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed. • … is "an inductive theory discovery methodology that allows the researcher to develop a theoretical account of the general features of a topic while simultaneously grounding the account in empirical observations or data." (Martin & Turner, 1986)

16. Epistemology – Positivism • Positivism is premised on the scientific method as the best way to understand processes • It relies on observable, empirical and measurable evidence • Data is collected through observation and experimentation; • Hypotheses are formulated and tested with that data • The method is as objective as possible, to reduce bias • Description, control and prediction are key tenets

17. Epistemology - Interpretivism • All actions occur in a social context • This context includes language, culture, shared meanings • Interpretive studies generally attempt to understand phenomena through the meanings that people assign to them and interpretive methods of research in IS are "aimed at producing an understanding of the context of the information system, and the process whereby the information system influences and is influenced by the context" (Walsham 1993, p. 4-5). • Interpretive research does not predefine dependent and independent variables, but focuses on the full complexity of human sensemaking as the situation emerges (Kaplan and Maxwell, 1994).

18. Epistemology - Critical • Critical researchers assume that social reality is historically constituted. • Although people can consciously act to change their social and economic circumstances, critical researchers recognize that their ability to do so is constrained by various forms of social, cultural and political domination. • The main task of critical research is seen as being one of social critique, whereby the restrictive conditions of the status quo are brought to light. • Critical research focuses on the oppositions, conflicts and contradictions in contemporary society, and seeks to be emancipatory.

19. Role of the Researcher • Observer • Someone who watches and measures • Case studies, Ethnography • Someone who designs and measures • Experiment, Survey • Intervenor • Someone who changes and measures • Action Research

20. Case Study • A case study is an empirical inquiry that: • investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when • the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident(Yin, 2003) • The case study is the most common form of qualitative research method in IS – as well as other disciplines

21. Ethnography • An ethnographer is required to spend a significant amount of time in the field. • Ethnographers immerse themselves in the lives of the people they study and seek to place the phenomena studied in their social and cultural context. • Ethnographies are used to study the development of systems and work practices/processes. • Cyber-ethnographies do the same thing in online environments

22. Action Research • Canonical AR involves the combination of theory and practice “through change and reflection in an immediate problematic situation within a mutually acceptable ethical framework” (Avison et al. 1999), with the dual intention of improving practice and contributing to theory and knowledge both within and beyond the immediate confines of the project (cf. Eden and Huxham, 1996).

23. Mixing • Each of the above sources of data, types of analysis, methods, etc. can be mixed with others • Quantitative + qualitative; survey + interview; statistical analysis + hermeneutic interpretation • Often, mixing enables one to gain a richer understanding of a phenomenon • But be careful not to violate each method’s principles and criteria • Make sure you represent each consistently

24. Rigour and Relevance • Good research needs to aim to satisfy both. • Relevance • For whom is the research relevant and why? • Overly controlled or artificial research may not have high levels of relevance • The ‘audience’ of the research is a key stakeholder for relevance, notably including any organisations or managers who can actively use the research outcomes

25. Rigour • Sometimes this is assumed to mean ‘positivist’ or ‘scientific’ research. • Actually, rigour simply means ‘exactness’ and ‘strict precision’ • Benbasat/Zmud define rigour as “the correct use of methods and analyses appropriate to the tasks at hand”

26. Theory • “There is nothing so practical as a good theory”! (Lewin, 1945) • “There is nothing so dangerous as a bad theory”! (Ghoshal, 2005) • So, clearly we have to handle theory very carefully. • “http://istheory.byu.edu/wiki” is a major resource for IS theory.

27. The Purpose of Theory? • To provide prescriptions to be followed in practice • To represent how concepts interact (e.g. IT, people, organisations) • To explain how different concepts are related and then to create testable hypotheses • Universal statements designed as nets in which to catch the world and master it. (Popper)

28. Types of Theory • Analysis and Description • What it is. No causality. No prediction. • Explanation • What, how, when, why, where. No prediction or testable propositions. • Prediction • What is and what will be. Testable propositions, but not causal explanations • Design and Action • How to do. Explicit prescriptions (methods, techniques) for action Gregor, MISQ, 2006

29. Examples of Theories Used in IS Research • Absoprtive capacity • Actor network • Adaptive structuration • Agency • Behavioural decision • Chaos • Cognitive dissonance • Cognitive fit • Etc.

30. Absorptive capacity theory Actor network theory Adaptive structuration theory Administrative behavior, theory of Agency theory Argumentation theory Behavioral decision theory Boundary object theory Chaos theory Cognitive dissonance theory Cognitive fit theory Cognitive load theory Competitive strategy (Porter) Complexity theory Contingency theory Critical realism theory Critical social theory Critical success factors, theory of Deferred action, theory of Delone and McLean IS success model Diffusion of innovations theory Dynamic capabilities Embodied social presence theory Equity theory Evolutionary theory Expectation confirmation theory Feminism theory Fit-Viability theory Flow theory Game theory Garbage can theory General systems theory General deterrence theory Hermeneutics Illusion of control Impression management, theory of Information processing theory Institutional theory International information systems theory Knowledge-based theory of the firm Language action perspective Lemon Market Theory Management fashion theory Media richness theory InCompleteList • Media synchronicity theory • Modal aspects, theory of • Multi-attribute utility theory • Organizational culture theory • Organizational information processing theory • Organizational knowledge creation • Organizational learning theory • Portfolio theory • Process virtualization theory • Prospect theory • Punctuated equilibrium theory • Real options theory • Resource-based view of the firm • Resource dependency theory • Self-efficacy theory • SERVQUAL • Social capital theory • Social cognitive theory • Social exchange theory • Social learning theory • Social network theory • Social shaping of technology • Socio-technical theory • Soft systems theory • Stakeholder theory • Structuration theory • Task closure theory • Task-technology fit • Technological frames of reference • Technology acceptance model • Technology dominance, theory of • Technology-organization-environment framework • Theory of planned behavior • Theory of reasoned action • Transaction cost economics • Transactive memory theory • Unified theory of acceptance and use of technology • Usage control model • Work systems theory • Yield shift theory of satisfaction

31. Discussion Questions • In which situations do you think a qualitative method might be most practical or useful? • Be as specific as possible. • Why is a good theory practical and why is a bad theory dangerous?

32. References Avison, D.E., Lau, F., Myers, M. and Nielsen, P.A. (1999) "Action Research", Communications of the ACM, 42, 1, 94-97. Eden, C. and Huxham, C. (1996) Action Research for Management Research, British Journal of Management, 7, 1, 75-86. Ghoshal, S. (2005) Bad Management Theories are Destroying Good Management Practices, Academy of Management Learning and Education, 4, 1, 75-91. Gregor, S. (2006) The Nature of Theory in Information Systems, MIS Quarterly 30(3): 611-642.Kaplan, B. and Maxwell, J.A. "Qualitative Research Methods for Evaluating Computer Information Systems," inEvaluating Health Care Information Systems: Methods and Applications, J.G. Anderson, C.E. Aydin and S.J. Jay (eds.), Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, 1994, pp. 45-68.Lewin, K. (1945) The Research Centre for Group Dynamics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sociometry, 8, 126-135. Martin, P.Y. and B.A. Turner. "Grounded Theory and Organizational Research," The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, (22:2), 1986, pp. 141-157. Walsham, G. (1993) Interpreting Information Systems in Organisations, Wiley: Chichester. Yin, R.K. (2003) Case Study Research, Design and Methods, Sage Publications