How Secure is Freedom?

1. How Secure is Freedom? Japanese-American Relocation During World War II Photo courtesy of American Memory.

2. How did Relocation Begin? • Begin your exploration of the issue of Japanese relocation during World War II by looking at two topics. • War Propaganda • FDR’s order to move Japanese aliens and American citizens

3. Views of the Japanese Look at the posters below and answer questions on the guide. • Once the effort to fight World War II was underway, the federal government paid artists to create propaganda posters directed towards majority American citizens and against the Japanese. Posters courtesy of American Memory.

4. Relocation Orders In February, 1942, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066which authorized the establishment of relocation camps for certain aliens and citizens. Link to and read FDR’s order in order to analyze the president’s reasons for the relocation. Answer the questions on the guide. Photo courtesy of American Memory.

5. How did Life Change in Camp? Property Environment Farming Mess Halls Food Housing Sleeping Latrines Social Life Students Gardens The following slides describe the type of life faced by residents of one relocation camp, Manzanar, in the Owens Valley of California. The words are those of Nissei Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston who was six years old when she and her family were relocated. The photographs were taken by Ansel Adams, renowned white photographer of the landscapes of America. Link to five of the topics listed to the right. Compare the words to the photos on each slide and write your observations on the table provided in order to analyze what life might have been like in the camps.

6. Property “The secondhand dealers had been prowling around for weeks, like wolves, offering humiliating prices for goods and furniture they knew many of us would have to sell sooner or later.” “Mama had brought along […]one fine old set of china, blue and white porcelain, almost translucent….One of the dealers offered her fifteen dollars for it. She said it was a full setting for twelve and worth at least two hundred…He said…he couldn’t pay more than seventeen fifty for that china. She reached into the red velvet case, took out a dinner plate and hurled it at the floor right in front of his feet.” Photo courtesy of American Memory.

7. Environment Link to a map and virtual tour of Manzanar “We rode all day. By the time we reached our destination, the shades were up. It was late afternoon. The first thing I saw was a yellow swirl across a blurred reddish setting sun. The bus was being pelted by what sounded like splattering rain. It wasn’t rain. [It was] a billowing flurry of dust and sand churned up by the wind through Owens Valley.” Photo courtesy of American Memory.

8. Farming “The soil around Manzanar is alluvial and very rich. With water siphoned off from the Los Angeles-bound aqueduct, a large farm was under cultivation just outside camp, providing the mess halls with lettuce, corn, tomatoes, eggplant, string beans, horseradish, and cucumbers.” Photo courtesy of American Memory. Link to a map and virtual tour of Manzanar.

9. Mess Halls “Later, it was the food that made us sick, young and old alike. The kitchens were too small and badly ventilated. Food would spoil from being left out too long. That summer, when the heat got fierce, it would spoil faster. The refrigeration kept breaking down. The cooks, in many cases, had never cooked before. Each block had to provide its own volunteers. Some were lucky and had a professional or two in their midst. But the first chef in our block had been a gardener all his life and suddenly found himself preparing three meals a day for 250 people.” Photo courtesy of American Memory.

10. Food “They issued us army mess kits, the round metal kind that fold over, and plopped in scoops of canned Vienna sausage, canned green beans, steamed rice that had been cooked too long, and on top of the rice a serving of canned apricots. The Caucasian servers were thinking that the fruit poured over the rice would make a good dessert. Among the Japanese, of course, rice is never eaten with sweet foods, only with salty or savory foods. Few of us could eat such a mixture. But at this point no one dared protest. It would have been impolite.” Photo courtesy of American Memory.

11. Housing Photo courtesy of American Memory. “The shacks were built of one thickness of pine planking covered with tarpaper. They sat on concrete footings, with about two feet of open space between the floorboards and the ground. Gaps showed between the planks, and as the weeks passed and the green wood dried out, the gaps widened. Knotholes gaped in the uncovered floor. Each barracks was divided into six units, sixteen by twenty, about the size of a living room, with one bare bulb hanging from the ceiling and an oil stove for heat. We were assigned two of these for the twelve people of our family group…We were issued steel army cots, two brown army blankets each, and some mattress covers, which my brothers stuffed with straw.”

12. Sleeping “We woke early, shivering and coated with dust that had blown up through the knotholes and in through the slits around the doorway.” “My oldest sister and her husband were shoved into one of those sixteen-by-twenty-foot compartments with six people they had never seen before—two other couples, one recently married like themselves, the other with two teenage boys. Partitioning off a room like that wasn’t easy. It was bitter cold when we arrived, and the wind did not abate. All they had to use for room dividers were those army blankets, two of which were barely enough to keep one person warm. They argued over whose blanket should be sacrificed and later argued about noise at night…” Photo courtesy of American Memory.

13. Latrines “Inside it was like all the other latrines. […] It was an open room, over a concrete slab. The sink was a long metal trough against one wall, with a row of spigots for hot and cold water. Down the center of the room twelve toilet bowls were arranged in six pairs, back to back, with no partitions. My mother was a very modest person, and this was going to be agony for her, sitting down in public with strangers. One old woman had already solved the problem for herself by dragging in a large cardboard carton. She set it up around one of the bowls, like a three-sided screen. OXYDOL was printed in large black letters down the front.”

14. Social Life “Those parks and gardens lent it an oriental character, but in most ways it was a totally equipped American small town, complete with schools, churches, Boy Scouts, beauty parlors, neighborhood gossip, fire and police departments, glee clubs, softball leagues, Abbot and Costello movies, tennis courts, and traveling shows.” Photo courtesy of American Memory.

15. Students “Now [after the first year with volunteer teachers and makeshift rooms] a teaching staff had been hired. Two blocks were turned into Manzanar High…We had blackboards, new desks, reference books, lab supplies.” Photos courtesy of American Memory.

16. Gardens “Gardens had sprung up everywhere, in the firebreaks, between the rows of barracks—rock gardens, vegetable gardens, cactus and flower gardens…Near Block 28 some of the men who had been professional gardeners built a small park, with mossy nooks, ponds, waterfalls and curved wooden bridges. Sometimes in the evenings we could walk down the raked gravel paths. You could face away from the barracks, look past a tiny rapids toward the darkening mountains, and for a while not be a prisoner at all.” Photo courtesy of American Memory.

17. What were the Emotional Effects? In the following slides you will once again encounter the words of Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston and the photos of Ansel Adams. This time, though, you will look at the effects of relocation on Issei and Nissei culture and family. Women Jobs Family Men Papa Link to two of the listed topics in order to analyze the emotional effects of relocation. Continue to fill in the table. Why are there not photos of some topics?

18. Women and Privacy “Like so many of the women there, Mama never did get used to the latrines. It was a humiliation she had to endure:shikata ga nai, this cannot be helped. She would quickly subordinate her own desires to those of the family or the community, because she knew cooperation was the only way to survive. At the same time she placed a high premium on personal privacy, respected it in others and insisted upon it for herself. Almost everyone at Manzanar had inherited this pair of traits from the generations before them who had learned to live in a small, crowded country like Japan. Because of the first they were able to take a desolate stretch of wasteland and gradually make it livable. But the entire situation there, especially in the beginning—the packed sleeping quarters, the communal mess halls, the open toilets—all this was an open insult to that other, private self, a slap in the face you were powerless to challenge.”

19. Jobs and Patriotism “The call went out for people with any kind of skill to offer their services. Thousands were responding, with great surges of community spirit, sometimes with outright patriotism, wanting ‘to do their part’. Woody signed on as a carpenter. One of my brothers-in-law was a roofing foreman. Another ran a reservoir crew. Mama had worked as a dietician [...] In camp this was high priority training. Nineteen dollars a month. This was top wage for an internee. Unskilled labor started at eight.” Photos courtesy of American Memory.

20. The Value of Family “Now, in the mess halls, after a few weeks had passed, we stopped eating as a family. Mama tried to hold us together for a while, but it was hopeless. Granny was too feeble to walk across the block three times a day […] My older brothers and sisters, meanwhile, began eating with friends, or eating somewhere blocks away, in the hope of finding better food.” “A couple of years after the camps opened, sociologists studying the life noticed what happened to the families. They made some recommendations, and edicts went out that families must start eating together again. […] My own family, after three years of mess hall living, collapsed as an integrated unit.” Photo courtesy of American Memory.

21. Inu, Men, and Honor “Years later I learned that inu also meant collaborator or informer. [Many] were were being called inu for having helped the army arrange a peaceful and orderly evacuation. Men who cooperated with camp authorities in any way could be labeled inu, as well as those genuine informers who relayed information to the War Department and FBI…Papa was [rumored to be] an inu because because he had been released from Fort Lincoln earlier than most of the Issei men, many of whom remained separated from their families throughout the war….But the rumor was that, as an interpreter, he had access to information from fellow Isseis that he later used to buy his release. This whispered charge, added to the shame of everything that had happened to him, was simply more than he could bear. He did not yet have the strength to resist it. He exiled himself, like a leper, and he drank.” Photo courtesy of American Memory.

22. Photo courtesy of American Memory. Papa “The night mama and I came back from the latrine with this newest bit of gossip [that Papa was inu], he had been drinking all day. At the first mention of what we’d overheard, he flew into a rage. He began to curse her for listening to such lies, then he cursed her for leaving him alone and wanted to know where she had really gone. He cursed her for coming back and disturbing him, for not bringing him his food on time, for bringing too much cabbage and not enough rice. He yelled and shook his fists and with his very threats forced her across the cluttered room until she collided with one of the steel bed frames and fell back onto a mattress. I had crawled under another bunk and huddled, too frightened to cry. In a house I would have run to another room, but in the tight little world of our cubicle, there was no escaping this scene. I knew his wrath could turn on any one of us.”

23. Was Relocation Fair? • Consider the glimpses of life at Manzanar camp that you have seen and read. • First, on the guide try to reconcile the similarities and differences between the writer’s and photographer’s views. • Second, consider the fairness of relocation from a constitutional point of view. View the next two slides about the 14th Amendment. • Last, read the summary of Korematsu v. US, one of three real Supreme Court cases about Japanese-American relocation in order to see if you agree with its decision. We will discuss your reactions in class. • Korematsu Overview

24. “All persons born… …or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state in which they reside…” Fully 2/3 of those Japanese forcibly relocated to camps during WWII were natural born US citizens. Beyond that, many of the Issei sent to the camps were naturalized US citizens. Photo courtesy of American Memory.

25. “No state shall make or enforce… …any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States, nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” --14th Amendment Does the 14th Amendment make any distinction between the treatment of citizens in times of war versus times of peace? Photo courtesy of American Memory.

26. Title: How Secure is our Freedom? Japanese-American Relocation during WWII Curriculum Integration: This lesson integrates content from Economic, Legal, and Political Systems (ELPS) regarding the rights of citizens and constitutional interpretation as well as from US History about the American homefront during World War II, particularly the rights of minorities. The primary source interpretation skills are required in both SCOS. Intended Grade/Use: 9th grade ELPS Narrative: How safe are our rights? Can the rights of citizens be interpreted differently in times of peace or war? In order to begin exploration of this issue, the treatment of Japanese aliens and citizens by the US government during WWII will be examined. Comparing the words of a relocation camp resident to the pictures taken by an outside photographer, students will decide to what degree Issei and Nissei lost their rights in the 1940s and then compare their understanding of the matter to what the Supreme Court actually ruled about the rights of Japanese citizens during wartime. NC SCOS: In the ELPS SCOS both Objective 1.6 (compare differing points of view on the proper role of government in the personal lives of citizens) and Objective 6.6 (analyze cases which demonstrate how the US Constitution and Bill of Rights protect the rights of citizens) are addressed. In the US History SCOS Objective 9.4 (describe and analyze the effects of war on American economic, social, and political life) is addressed. Timeline: Designed for use in a two week unit on the Constitution and Bill of Rights, this lesson will be used after students have gained a solid foundation in the underlying ideas of the Constitution. Days 1-8: Topics covered include the writing of the Constitution, the underlying principles of the Constitution, the organization and outline of the Constitution, and the Federalist papers, the Bill of Rights, first amendment rights, and the flexible nature of the Constitution. Day 9: The 14th Amendment Day 10: How Secure is Our Freedom? Japanese American Relocation Materials: Technology required for this lesson includes enough computers with internet access and Microsoft Power Point so that students can work in small groups of 3-4 at a single computer. One copy of the power point case study is needed per computer, and copies of the Manzanar study guide and synopsis of Korematsu vs. the US. should be made for each student as well. Students can also access the Korematsu decision at the FindLaw website: http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com

27. Teacher Preparation: Context for understanding the case study may be gained by reading Farewell to Manzanar or by visiting the National Park Service website about Manzanar N.H.P. at http://www.nps.gov/manz. Students will benefit from a 10 minute introduction to the topic by the teacher before beginning the case study. • Prerequisite Student Skills: Students should possess some understanding of how to read and interpret a primary source as well as background knowledge on the Constitution and 14th Amendment. • Activities/Procedures: • Focus (5-10 minutes): Teacher should sketch out a brief description of the Japanese-American population on the west coast in the 1940s, Pearl Harbor, and the rise of anti-Japanese attitudes in the US. • Case Study (50 minutes): Students should be divided into groups of 2-3 per computer and given a Manzanar study guide. Each group should walk through the case study step by step, following the directions on the study guide as well as on the power point. Initially they will have to evaluate background primary sources together in order to understand why the relocation camps were created. The second and third parts of the case study ask them to compare the words of Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston to the photos of Ansel Adams. Here they can choose which topics to learn about based upon their own interests, and they should fill in the chart comparing the words and photos based upon which topics they studied. • Personal Reaction (30 minutes): After completing the case study, students should be asked to individually decide if the US government was justified in the creation of the relocation camps in the 1940s. Based upon their decisions, they should each write a 1-2 page “decision” explaining the legal and constitutional reasons for their arguments. They should be encouraged to incorporate what they have learned about the effects of the camps from the case study to bolster their arguments. • Supreme Court Decision (read for homework): Hand out a synopsis of Korematsu vs. the US for students to read for homework. Have them respond to the points they agree and disagree with in the decision. Discuss the case study with the class the next day. • Assessment/Evaluation: The written decision and study guide will outline the degree of factual understanding and personal meaning each student drew from the assignment. • Follow-Up Activities: To draw students’ attention to the fact that this issue has relevance today, provide them with articles regarding the treatment of Arab-Americans in the wake of the 9-11 attacks in order to have them explore similarities and differences between the treatment of the two groups, as well as to decide if the ethnic profiling of Arab-Americans in the last year is fair and justifiable.

28. Works Cited Slide 1: Grogan, Brian. “Stairs at Merrit Park Site, Looking West.” 1994. Historic American Buidings Survey from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/cgibin/displayPhoto] [CA-2599-J-I] (November 12, 2002). Slide 3: Grigware, Edward T. “Alaska - Death-Trap for the Jap.” Between 1941 and 1943. WPA Art Project from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?wpapos:8:./temp/~ammem_kEyL:: ] [cph 3b48885] (November 12, 2002). von Phul, Phil. “Salvage Scrap to Blast the Jap.” 1940 or 1941. WPA Art Project from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?wpapos:7:./temp/~ammem_kEyL:: ] [cph 3b49009 ] (November 12, 2002). Slide 4: OWI photogragher. “President Roosevelt signing the declaration of war against Japan.” Farm Security Administration and Office of War Information Collection from the Library of Congress. 1941. [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/presp] [cph 3a17434] (November 12, 2002). Slide 6: Adams, Ansel. “Relocation: Packing up, Manzanar Relocation Center.” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00294 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00294] (November 12, 2002). Houston, Jeanne Wakatsuki and James D. Houston. Farewell to Manzanar. New York: Dell Laurel-Leaf Press. 1973. pp. 13-14. Slide 7: Adams, Ansel. “Manzanar from Guard Tower, view west, (Sierra Nevada in Background).” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00200 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00200] (November 12, 2002). Houston, pp. 18-19.

29. Slide 8: Adams, Ansel. “Benji Iguchi driving tractor in field.” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00320 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00320] (November 12, 2002). Houston, p. 99. Slide 9: Adams, Ansel. Born Free and Equal, Photographs of the Loyal Japanese-Americans at Manzanar Relocation Center, Inyo County, California. New York: US Camera, 1944. Online at http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=gdc3&fileName=scd0001_20020123001bfpage.db&recNum=4. p. 50. (November 12, 2002). Houston, pp. 30-31. Slide 10: Adams, Ansel. “Hog farm.” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00373 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00373] (November 12, 2002). Houston, p. 20. Slide 11: Adams, Ansel. “Yonemitsu Family, son - Michael, sister - Lucy Toshiko, father - Francis .” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00767 urn:hdl:loc. pnp/ppprs.00767] (November 12, 2002). Houston, pp. 20-21. Slide 12: Adams, Ansel. “Mr. and Mrs. Dennis Shimizu.” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00401 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.0040] (November 12, 2002).

30. Houston, pp. 22-23. Slide 13: Houston, pp. 30-31. Slide 14: Adams, Ansel. “Baseball game .” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00369 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00369] (November 12, 2002). Houston, p. 100. Slide 15: Adams, Ansel. “Baton practice, Florence Kuwata .” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00135 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00135] (November 12, 2002). Adams, Ansel. “Football practice.” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00424 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00424 http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppprs.00424 ] (November 12, 2002). Adams, Ansel. “In biology class, high school, Kiyo Yoshida, Lillian Watkatsuki, Yoshiko Yamasaki .” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00184 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00184] (November 12, 2002). Adams, Ansel. “School children .” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00354 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00354] (November 12, 2002). Houston, p. 104.

31. Slide 16: Adams, Ansel. “Poolin pleasure park.” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00371 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.0037] (November 12, 2002). Houston, p. 99. Slide 18: Houston, pp. 33-34. Slide 19: Adams, Ansel. “Benji Iguchi and Harry [i.e., Henry] Hanawa, tractor repair.” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00118 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00118] (November 12, 2002). Adams, Ansel. “Japanese-American U.S. Naval cadet nurse, Kay Fukuda, Manzanar Series.” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00267 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00267] (November 12, 2002). Adams, Ansel. “Welder .” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00137 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00137] (November 12, 2002). Houston, p. 39. Slide 20: Adams, Ansel. “Tojo Miatake [i.e., Toyo Miyatake] Family.” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00250 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00250] (November 12, 2002). Houston, pp. 20-21. .

32. Slide 21: Adams, Ansel. “Sam Bozono (Policeman).” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00402 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00402] (November 12, 2002). Houston, p. 67 Slide 22: Adams, Ansel. “Mr. and Mrs. Henry J. Tsurutani and baby Bruce.” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00251 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.0025] (November 12, 2002). Houston, pp. 67-68 Slide 24: Adams, Ansel. “Roy Takano [i.e., Takeno] at town hall meeting.” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00374 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00374] (November 12, 2002). Slide 25: Adams, Ansel. “Roy Takeno reading paper in front of office.” 1943. “Suffering Under a Great Injustice” Ansel Adam’s Photographs of Japanese-American Internment at Manzanar from the Library of Congress. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aamhtml/aamhome.html] [ppprs 00407 urn:hdl:loc.pnp/ppprs.00407 http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppprs.00407] (November 12, 2002).