Writing in a Academic Style

1. Writing in a Academic Style

2. What we are going to cover Some guidance and friendly advice on improving your formal writing Some rules � you must obey or die!!

3. Types of academic writing Lab reports Literature reviews / essays / exams Honours dissertation Published scientific papers

4. Essay planning

5. Think about the structure and the story line Break the text into sections with sub headings Follow the brief Tell the reader where the story is going

6. Think about what you are saying!!!!! �Should species die out then their natural resistance to disease is eliminated�� �Geese are smaller than swans but are larger than ducks. Swans are larger than geese and ducks. Ducks are smaller than geese and swans�� �There are few sites of conversational interest at Frongoch��

7. More howlers� �Farmers should not stick to the same areas, they should move every year�� �The next development over the horizon is genetically modified orgasms�� �Other species of vegetation inhibit the site�

8. Introductions Written last of all After you know what you are going to say Can be a map of the essay briefly mentioning the sections following Can justify why it is worthy of study for essay titles that you choose

9. Blue men�s socks Adult numbers Experimental students Mobile numbers Data were extracted from the late Professor Smith FYM students (Final Year Module) There was a significant effect of X on Y There was a significant relationship between x and y.

10. Care using spell checks! Diary cows vs Dairy cows Tip use the thesaurus / synonyms to check the meaning of words And care with words not in spell checks Like plant names � wood enemy, wood anaemia, Cecil the oak and Brecon (the Welsh fern)

11. Precise language, being picky or an evolving language? Data were not data was Wireless and radio Commuters � must buy a ticket Remember it could be read anywhere in the English speaking world

12. Take care with technical jargon The origin and maintenance of the capitulum polymorphism in Senecio vulgaris L. (Groundsel). Flower colour phenology in British mesotrophic grassland communities.

13. Avoid colloquialisms Mucking out Finishing off Pleaching Dyking Jack & Jennet Jumping-off

14. Shaping the argument for an essay Up front model The evidence for and against an idea, after it has been stated �Evidence to suggest that the plays attributed to Shakespeare were actually written by Marlowe will be considered in this essay�� The thriller model Introduce the theme without giving a conclusion �This essay considers the theory that plays attributed to Shakespeare were written by his contemporary Marlowe�

15. The body of the essay Keep a focus on the subject at hand Represent all (or most points of view) Indicate stages in your argument However, Therefore, Moreover, Additionally, That notwithstanding, etc But do not overuse these!

16. The body of the essay�cont Reference (important/ most/ all) facts Give a value judgement on equivocal evidence Use case studies, specific examples Add weight to arguments Look out for relations between facts Make comparisons, analogies, contrasts, etc

17. Conclusions Written second to last �I have told you�� Not suitable for short essays (<2000 words) �The answer is�� Giving the answer to a question posed in the introduction �Where this essay could go next� Identifying further areas of research into the unknown Care! Could make you look stupid!

18. Past passive tense Impersonal (almost never: I, we, me, our, etc) In the past tense for what you found or did for an experiment In the past tense for what other researchers found or did in an experiment In the present tense for generally accepted truths

19. Past passive tense� �The sample was weighed� �The tourists were questioned�� �Smith et al. (1999) found numbers of bats to fall�� �Brown et al. (2002) reported grain yields increased �� �The sun rises in the east�� �Milk yields decline by 3% per week after peak lactation (James et al. 2000)� �Cats are the main predators of sparrows in Sheffield� (Jones et al. 1992; Smith et al. 2003)�

20. Write in proper sentences Do not write in lists Construct a proper argument A sentence must have a verb� Not �Teaching skills for the new generation of University entrants.� Not �Between your knees on a bale or stool.�

21. Other stuff that gets on my nerves� Avoid contractions (e.g. don�t, can�t, didn�t) Limit use of abbreviations (define on first use, then use throughout) Woolly language (The advantages were good and the disadvantages were bad) The word DONE Spelling (Word spell check is not enough, read your work) Random capitals Do not Capitalise words Just because they are Important in the sentence.

22. Each sentence should convey a single point � avoid long sentences

23. � Given all these factors arguing against the retention of the 365-day calving interval, the main case forcing its retention are the extensive grazing systems now far more common in the UK than in 1979, where cows calve in the early spring to produce most of their milk from cheap grass. �

24. �Given all these factors arguing against the retention of the 365-day calving interval, the main case forcing its retention are the extensive grazing systems currently popular. These systems are now far more common in the UK than in 1979. In these systems cows calve in the early spring to produce most of their milk from cheap grass.

25. Redundancy �Very much greater milk yield�� �This essay will analyse the effect of the growth hormone preparation�� (under title: Growth Hormone) �We conducted an experiment to investigate�� (under the title of the experiment)

26. Ambiguity Make sure that it is very clear what it is you are talking about: Care with use of words such as: This (�in this report�) That (�in that experiment�) Which (�which was found not to be the case�) It (�it was greater than that�) etc�

27. Report facts accurately Give a reference (preferably peer reviewed) for all scientific statements Make clear what is speculation Give the good basis for that speculation Enable the reader to judge

28. Using references All but well established facts need a reference All references in the text MUST appear in the reference list and vice versa The reference must say what you claim it says

29. Citing references in text Just the surname(s) and year of publication With the author�s name as part of the sentence Jones (1999) stated that� Smith and Western (1990) noted� Rose et al. (2004) investigated� With the reference at the end of a statement � on poor quality diets (Brown et al. 1999) � was noted (Smith et al. 1903; Jones 1999)

30. The Internet as a source of reference Is (mostly) rubbish It can change from one day to the next There is nothing to vouch that it is true Is often opinion rather than fact e.g. For an essay on foxhunting �League Against Cruel Sports� �Countryside Alliance� Opinion only not facts

31. Avoid using �quotes� Avoid lifting blocks of text Unless the exact wording is important Rewording text demonstrates your understanding and avoids the you being accused of plagiarism One or two key quotes may be acceptable

32. Bibliographies - Harvard Referencing Journal Bennett, H. Gunter, H. & Reid, S. (1996) Through a glass darkly: images of appraisal. Journal of Teacher Development 5 39-46.� Journal (where author anonymous) How dangerous is obesity? (1977) British Medical Journal 6069 1115.� Books Mohr, L.B. (1996) Impact analysis for program evaluation. 2nd ed. London, Sage. Chapters in books Whitehead, C.C (1991) Nutrition and growth of fat and lean broiler genotypes. In Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition. Eds. Haresign, W. and Cole, D.J.A. London, Butterworths.

33. The Take Home Message Answer the brief Structure your text Provide evidence to support your arguments Keep the language simple and clear Read what you have written