Chapter 6

1. Chapter 6 The World in the 18th Century

2. Intro • Western Europe continued exploring the world and expanding Western influence, power and wealth • Most of the world’s cultures were drawn into global trading relationships • West’s unceasing search for riches, decimated indigenous cultures, created enduring dependence on the West, and enslaved millions

3. The West and the World • Seems all present-day developing nations lived through a similar historical experience: • they all had to endure the expansion of Europe as it embraced capitalism • Two main theories attempt to explain developing nations today: • modernization theory • dependency theory

4. Modernization Theory • Suggests that all societies were originally traditional • societies in which work is regulated subsistence and existence • experienced little change, little progress and little innovation (stagnant) • Scientific discovery lead to important technological change in Europe

5. Modernization Theory (2) • The advent of capitalism also fuelled change • Uses the idea that wealth can be used to create more wealth • Modernization theorists claim that developing countries today failed to move from traditional societies to modern societies • Did not focus on science, technology, innovation, capitalism or democracy

6. Modernization Theory (3) • Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth • Stage 1: The traditional society • Stage 2: Something happens to stir up the traditional society • Stage 3: Country’s political leaders make progress, science and technology priorities • Stage 4: Economic growth begins and spreads to various sectors of society • Stage 5: Masses (lower class) finally benefit from the economic growth through increased standards of living

7. Dependency Theory • Opposite to modernization theory • Reason some countries are developing nations today is because European nations deliberately created poverty and dependency in these areas • None of these countries has remained traditional

8. Dependency Theory (2) • Developing world is where it is today as a result of its deliberate underdevelopment by European powers • Dependency theorists point out that these cultures were far from traditional if they were receiving such praise for improvements in agriculture and manufactures

9. Major Arenas of European Conflict in the 18th Century • By 1800 it was evident that Spain and Portugal had failed to take full control of the world they had pioneered • America was mostly Catholic with Spanish and Portuguese languages present • did not have much influence in the realm of economics • Dutch had also slowed down their activities in Africa, Indonesia, and Malaysia after 1700 leaving them open to European exploitation

11. Arenas (2) • Britain as a global empire experiences a period of global authority that would not end until well after WWI • 1715-1815 saw the emergence of a cluster of great powers that would dominate 19th c Europe

12. Arenas (3) • Russia became a major power in Eastern Europe • German-speaking Prussia grew in importance in Central Europe • Britain and France fought a global duel for control of the seas-which Britain won • Although overextended, Austria remained influential in Central European politics

13. Arenas (4) • Monarchies of Spain, Portugal and the Italian states carried little weight • Dutch, Danes, Swedes were now also secondary powers • Great powers were closely matched in resources and strength • Not able to ignore the lesser states • Made frequent overtures for collaboration

15. French Hegemony Thwarted • Louis XIV wanted to extend his authority in Europe • An alliance among Britain, the Netherlands and others formed against France • French and Spanish fleets were outclassed by Anglo-Dutch at sea

16. Hegemony (2) • Peace of Utrecht signed in 1713 • King of Spain, Philip V kept his throne and the Spanish empire, but ceded Gibraltar and Menorca to Britain • He renounced any claim to the French throne

17. Hegemony (3) • Treaty had implications beyond Europe • Louis XIV of France returned Hudson Bay , Acadian, Newfoundland & Saint Kitts to Britain • British received an annual contract, the Asiento, to provide the Spanish Empire with slaves, an agreement later extended to the Austrian emperor

18. Austria • Austria had gained from Turks most of Hungary as well as northern Serbia By early 18th c, 3 powers dominated: • Great Britain had become the dominant naval power, • Austria had become a formidable land force • France had acquired considerable strength both on land and at sea

19. Austria (2) • British navy was being challenged by the French, who were trying to rebuild their war fleet • By 1739 France had 50 major warships and Britain had 80 • Conflict between Britain and France loomed overseas in their trading and colonial interests

20. War of Austrian Succession • Maria Theresa became the new Austrian Empress in 1740 • Frederick the Great (Prussia) reacted by invading Austrian province of Silesia • Austrians were never able to force Frederick to give up his conquest • Ensuring war, which pitted the Anglo-Austrian troops against Franco-Bavarian and Prussian troops, is known as the War of Austrian Succession

21. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle • 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ended war, but settled little • British exchanged Madras, India to get the Louisbourg fortress from the French • The Netherlands were ceded to Austria • Silesia ceded to Prussia • Ongoing hostility erupted into open war in 1756 (7 Years War)

22. Seven Years’ War • In early 1756, Britain and Prussia signed an agreement not to attack each other • France and Austria signed a defensive alliance • In June, France seized Menorca from the British • In August, Prussian invading Saxony • However, it united the Austrians and Russians against him

23. Seven Year’s War (2) • Prussian state survived undefeated • Europe’s major powers were pitted against each • War would have worldwide repercussions, especially for North America • Seven Year’s War was caused by: • Britain’s efforts to strengthen naval supremacy • Russia’s expansion in Eastern Europe

24. Seven Year’s War (3) • Conflicts between France and England were fought outside the Continent • North America, Africa, Caribbean, India • In India, Robert Clive and his forces prevailed over the French in 1757 • Resulted in buildup of British influence on the Indian subcontinent • In Canada, British captured Louisbourg, Quebec City, and Montreal

25. Seven Year’s War (4) • In September 1759 two major battles • Lagos (Portugal) and Quiberon Bay (France) • Decimated the French fleet and established the supremacy of British fleet • Removal of the French from the Atlantic cut off the supply line of French troops to new France • French also lost coastal trading posts in West Africa • After loss, British seized Guadeloupe, Martinique, and other West Indian islands

26. Treaty of Paris • Peace agreement reached in 1763 • France showed little interest in reclaiming new France • Choose to keep islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, secure return of Guadeloupe • In India, France retained only a few coastal trading posts • The treaty marked the beginning of an extensive period of British dominance outside Europe

28. Human Servitude • By the beginning of the 18th century, slaves had become the primary export from Africa • Millions of Africans were enslaved for the benefit of manufacturing and commercial interests in Europe and America

29. Africans Shipped to Slavery • Between 1701 and 1810 • two million slaves were exported from Africa by England alone • France and Portugal exported approximately 600,000 slaves each

30. Africans (2) • Estimated that as many as 14 million Africans were shipped to slavery • About 1% of slaves went to Europe • About 7% went to US and Canada • About 42% to Caribbean • About 50% went to Latin America

31. Slaves (3) • By the time slavery was abolished • Much of the world had been forever altered • Heavy depopulation, particularly of young males, weakened African communities

33. Becoming a Slave • Slavery existed in African society before European contact and trade • 3 ways a person could become a slave: • Pawnship, Judicial decision, Capture • Slaves in Africa better off: • could still be functioning members of owner’s family • Received better treatment than being bought and sold by European slave traders

34. Profit from Slave Trade • Profits from slave trade could be enormous - might make 300% profit • Costs for European slave traders included fees and taxes, financial losses due to losses of ships and crew at sea, hiring people in Africa to load slaves onto ships • Estimated average was 24%; later reduced to 8-13%

35. Colony at Cape of Good Hope • Cape of Good Hope did get colonized by Europeans • Dutch first landed there in 1652 • Dutch settled into colonial life at he Cape and began importing slaves by the middle of the 17th century • By 1711, the were 1771 private owned slaves; by 1793 there were 14747

36. Cape of Good Hope (2) • Cape has been called one of the most rigid and oppressive slave societies that existed • Slaves had very little family life due to low ratio of women to men • Dutch relied heavily on coercion as a means of control • Strong racial divisions between Indonesian and African slaves – worst jobs went to slaves from Mozambique

37. Abolition of Slavery • Not all people were completely indifferent to the cruelty, exploitation, and death that came with the slave trade • Slaves often flogged and other physical punishments to keep slaves from rebelling or running away • With the Enlightenment came calls for an end to slavery and the slave trade

38. Barriers to Human Rights • As slave trade grew, churches offered support for the practice of slavery • Some justified slavery under God and the bible • Many believed that Blacks were stronger and more resistant to the climatic and working conditions of plantations • Others argued that if the slave trade were to be legally terminated, it would continue illegally because it was so profitable

39. Agents of Human Rights:Abolitionists • Abolitionist movement gained momentum • Major abolitionist was Guillaume-Thomas-Francois Raynal (1713-1796) • Negative overview of the European world system • European settlers who lived in the colonies were vicious • Believed discovery of the East and West Indies had been a catastrophe of much of humanity • put to an end

40. Abolition (2) • Slavery was abolished in Upper Canada as of 1834 (not illegal but frowned upon) • Slavery was abolished in France on September 27, 1791 • Abolished in Mexico in 1829 • Persisted in the southern United States • Major cause of the American Civil War • War raged from 1861 to 1866 before slavery was abolished

41. Islam and the West • Islam founded by the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century • Islam expanded greatly • by 1500 much of North Africa and the Middle East was Muslim territory • In 1453, the city of Constantinople (Istanbul) fell to Sultan Mohammed II, and marked the new western border of the Empire of the Ottoman Turks

42. Islam (2) • Constantinople had been a Christian stronghold for the previous 1000 years • Fall to Islam was a severe shock to the Christian world • Key consequence was the loss of access to the Black Sea, depriving Europe of a land route to India

43. Islam (3) • Ottoman Empire was dominant power of from the 16th to 19th century • By the 16th century, the West was aware of three major Muslim Empires • The Ottoman Empire • The Safavid Empire – which had replaced Zoroastrianism in Persia (Iran) • The Moghul Empire – which had taken over Hindu India

44. Islam (4) • Muslims tended to have superior military • Ottomans also had more efficient bureaucracy than the West • In Islamic tradition, new appointments were given on the grounds of ability, not birth • Fatal flaw of Ottoman Empire was its excessive exploitation of its peasantry

45. Islam (5) • Ottoman decline was also due to its failure to develop artillery and ships that carried naval gunnery • Strength lay in ground armies • By 1800, Europeans were calling the Ottoman Empire “the Sick Man of Europe”

46. India and the West • Indian subcontinent also affected by contact with Europeans • India became unified under Moghul (Mongol) rule

47. India (2) • 18th c Mogul dynasty in decline • Infighting between sons of emperor after his death • Challenges to Mogul rule by Sikhs • Increased power of the Marathas (local Hindu powers) • Attacks by Persians • Inter-regional religious wars • Court incompetence • General greed of Moguls

48. India (3) • Government structure around semi-independent Moghul provincial governors called navabs • Navabs controlled local landowners called zamindars • Seemed to be in constant conflict • Zamindars were supposed to pay revenue to their navid, but often expanded their own territory without paying the required tribute

49. India (4) • Declining power of the Moghuls benefitted British • 1690 est. British settlement in Calcutta • To 1750s, Britain exerted influence through trade and alliances • British in direct control of import and export trade, price-setting, and the ability to force exclusive contracts with local craftspeople • Also had access to considerable treasury of Bengal

50. India (5) • By 1765, the East India Company had official control of civil administration and therefore control over the tax system • Increased taxes - often lead to bankruptcy for Bengali farmers • Company’s control expanded to other parts of India through warfare and intervention • Sometimes direct rule over areas it conquered, sometimes it installed and supported puppet rulers