Human Beginnings

1. Human Beginnings Prehistory-1000 B.C.

2. Discovery of Early Humans in Africa • Dating Early Artifacts • Archaeologists and physical anthropologists face the problem of assigning a definite age to remains. • Among the techniques for determining the age of remains are radiocarbon dating and DNA analysis.

3. Discovery of Early Humans in Africa • Prehistoric Finds in Africa • In 1992 a paleontologist in Ethiopia discovered 4.4 million year old fossils belonging to the oldest direct human ancestor known. • In 1974, again in Ethiopia, two scientists uncovered a nearly complete skeleton of a 3.2 million year old hominid nicknamed “Lucy”. • In 1994 a reasonably complete skull of a Lucy-like hominid provided evidence that Lucy-like hominids could walk upright.

4. Discovery of Early Humans in Africa • Human Origins • Australopithecus, the first pre-human hominid, lived in eastern and southern Africa about 4.4 million years ago. • Scientists divide Homo-the genus of humans-into three species: Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens.

5. Discovery of Early Humans in Africa • The Ice Ages • Between 2 million and 10,000 years ago, Earth experienced four periods called the Ice Ages, during which only the middle latitudes were warm enough to support human and animal life. • Early human beings adapted to the Ice Ages by migrating to warmer places or developing strategies for keeping warm.

6. Discovery of Early Humans in Africa • Human Culture • Culture includes the knowledge a people have, the language they speak, the ways in which they eat and dress, their religious beliefs, and their achievements in are and music. • One of the earliest cultural developments was the use of stone tools, which has led historians to apply the mane “Stone Age “ to the period before writing was widely established.

7. Discovery of Early Humans in Africa • Paleolithic Hunter-Gatherers • Homo Habilis, who lived during the Paleolithic, are the oldest hominids known to have manufactured tools. • Homo erectus, who began as food gatherers but became hunters by developing weapons, utilized fire and made clothing from animal skins.

8. Discovery of Early Humans in Africa • Paleolithic Hunter-Gatherers Cont. • Scientists disagree on when prehistoric peoples migrated out of Africa, but there is a general agreement that Homo erectus was established in China and Europe by about 40,000 years ago. • By 50,000 B.C. prehistoric peoples had developed language, which allowed them to exchange ideas and pass their knowledge on to the next generation.

9. The Appearance of Homo Sapiens • The Neanderthals • Neanderthals, probably the first homo sapiens, began spreading into Europe and Asia about 100,000 years ago. • Neanderthals’ tool making ability was more sophisticated than that of Homo erectus.

10. The Appearance of Homo Sapiens • Most Neanderthals lived in groups of 35 to 50 people, either in open-air camps or in non-permanent dwellings such as caves. • The Neanderthals were culturally advanced in their care for the sick and aged and in their treatment of the dead.

11. The Appearance of Homo Sapiens • Homo Sapiens Sapiens • Most scientists believe that modern humans, of homo sapiens sapiens in Europe, originated in Africa about 50,000 years ago and soon came to dominate almost every continent. • The Cro-Magnons, the earliest homo sapiens sapiens, brought with them improved technology and a more sophisticated culture.

12. The Appearance of Homo Sapiens • The advances the Cro-Magnons made in tool making transformed human life by making long-distance travel possible and increasing the supply of food. • The Cro-Magnons’ increased the food supply had political and social consequences, including the cooperation of unrelated bands of Cro-Magnons and the evolution of rule-making and leadership.

13. The Appearance of Homo Sapiens • Cro-Magnons at first lived in temporary structures, but as their hunting methods advanced, they built permanent communities. • The Cro-Magnons were accomplished cave painters and sculptors.

14. The Appearance of Homo Sapiens • The Neolithic Revolution • During the Neolithic period and immediately after, people gradually shifted from gathering and hunting food to producing food. • The Mesolithic period, during which people domesticated animals and developed farming tools, was a forerunner of the Neolithic Revolution.

15. The Appearance of Homo Sapiens • In different parts of the world, the Neolithic Revolution took place at different times and involved different crops and animals. • Farming assured a steady food supply and enabled people to stay longer in one place, but it also required harder and longer work.

16. The Appearance of Homo Sapiens • With the development of agriculture, people began to settle in agricultural villages instead of wandering as nomads. • Neolithic farmers made agricultural work easier and more productive by inventing the plow and fertilizing their fields.

17. The Appearance of Homo Sapiens • The relatively steady food supply quickened the pace of technological advance and led to the development of calendars, land ownership, and warfare. • Neolithic people believed in deities with the power to hurt or help people.

18. The Emergence of Civilization • River Valley Civilizations • A civilization is a highly organized society with an advanced knowledge of farming, trade, government, art, and science. • Many early civilizations arose from farming settlements in river valleys.

19. The Emergence of Civilization • Early river valley civilizations depended on the specialization of labor, advanced technology, a government to coordinate large-scale cooperative efforts, and a shred system of values and beliefs. • Some societies remained as small agricultural villages or hunter –and-gatherer bands.

20. The Emergence of Civilization • The Economy of a Civilization • The economy of early civilizations depended on the growth of surplus food. • Farmers could produce a surplus of crops because early civilizations built massive irrigation systems and dikes and dams to prevent flooding. • As people continued to specialize in ways of earning a living, workers skilled in a craft became increasingly productive and creative.

21. The Emergence of Civilization • Historians refer to the period that followed the Stone Age as the Bronze Age because bronze replaced stone as the chief material for weapons and tools. • Bronze was expensive and therefore used only by kings, priests, and soldiers.

22. The Emergence of Civilization • Long-distance trade accompanied the rise of early civilizations. • Along with goods, ideas were shared across cultures, stimulating the improvement of skills throughout the world.

23. The Emergence of Civilization • The Rise of Cities • As civilizations grew more prosperous and complex, cities faced the need to supervise and protect agriculture and trade. • Early city dwellers solved these problems in two ways: they organized a group of government officials to act as supervisors, and they hired professional soldiers to guard their territory and trade routes. • The ruling class, made up of government leaders, military officials, priests, and often a king, justified its power by means of religion.

24. The Emergence of Civilization • Archaeological studies of the physical layout of ancient cities provide evidence of levels of social standings. • Many archaeologists think that writing originated with the records that priests kept of religious offerings.

25. The Emergence of Civilization • Systems of Values • Among the materials recorded by the priesthoods in early civilizations were myths-traditional stories explaining how the world was formed, how people came into being, and what they owed their creator • Creation myths, found in every civilization, are often examined by historians for evidence of a people’s customs and values.