Identifying Different Types of Research

1. Identifying Different Types of Research (Paradigms) Intended Use, Treatment of Time & Units of Measurement

2. Ways of using literature reviews to develop ideas for topics • Literature review = Survey of research done on your topic replicate a project (exactly or with variations) • previous research may inspire you (Baxter & Babbie, p. 20), for example : • explore unexpected findings • follow suggestions for further research • extend explanation or theory to new topic or setting or context • challenge findings-- try to refute conclusions • look for new variables, relationships not treated in literature

3. Note incomplete literature coverage : “Lost Science in the Third World”--- Scientific American (1995) Vol 277, No. 7.

4. Recall: Research Paradigms • Sets of shared patterns in a scholarly community about what constitutes worthwhile research (Thomas Kuhn, The structure of scientific revolutions) • What problems are worth investigating? • What constitutes an answer? • Different views on how approaches are grouped

5. Developing research topics

6. Identifying Styles of Research: Example of Quantitative vs. Qualitative Approaches(common about 20-30 yrs ago but still used)Neuman (2000: 16) Quantitative vs. Qualitative Objective Subjective Variables Processes and events Reliability Authenticity Value-Free Explicitly Stated Values Independent of Context Aware of Context Many cases or subjects Few cases or subjects Statistical Analysis Other qualities Detached Researcher Involved Researcher

7. Another idea: Four Paradigms (Burrell & Morgan) Conflict/radical change radical humanist radical structuralist interpretive functionalist subjective objective Order/stability/regulation

8. “Dimensions” of Research Neuman (2000: 37)

9. Exploratory Research • When not much is known about topic • Surprises (e.g. Serendipity effect) • Familiarity with basic concerns and develop a picture • To explore feasibility of additional research • To develop questions

10. Descriptive Research • Focuses on “who”, “what” and “how” • Background information, to stimulate new ways of thinking, to classify types, etc.

11. Explanatory Research • To test theories, predictions, etc… • Idea of “advancing” knowledge

12. Intended Uses of Study • Basic or fundamental research • Depends on paradigm • Inner logic & relation to theoretical or methodological issues in field • Concerns scholarly community • Applied research (practical applications) • action research (We can make a difference) • evaluation research (Did it work?) • Methods: • formative (built in) • summative (final outcomes) • Research goals • needs assessment (Who needs what?) • cost-benefit analysis (What is it worth?) • social impact assessment (What will be the effects?)

13. Treatment of Time • Cross-sectional (one point in time) • Longitudinal (more than one point in time)

14. Main Types of Longitudinal Studies • Panel study • Example: same people, at least twice 1990 2000 40-49 40-49 50-59 50-59 60-69 60-69 70-79 70-79 80+ Source: Babbie (1995: 99)

15. Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d) • Cohort analysis • same category of people (but not exactly same individuals) at at least two times or over a period • Not necessarily age cohorts, can be groups of people, (ex. class of 2007) • Term usually used for people but principles can also apply to non-humans: ex. implementation of homeland security policies 9/11 2 years and 5 years after, etc… Source: Babbie (1995: 99)

16. Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d) • Time-series • same type of info., not exactly same people, multiple time periods, e.g. Same age groups 1990 2000 41-50 41-50 51-60 51-60 61-70 61-70 71-80 71-80 Source: Babbie (1995: 99) Back to table To next slide

17. Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d) • Time-series (other examples) • same type of info., not exactly same people, multiple time periods, e.g. Same place 1985 2000 Capital Hill residents Capital Hill residents

18. One point in time (but techniques exist to convert cross-sectional data for use in longitudinal studies) Main Types of Cross-sectional Studies (cont’d) 20 Duration (in years) 15 10 5 1970 75 80 85 90 Year (Date) Source: http://demog.berkeley.edu/wilmoth/mortality/lexis.html (May 15, 2000)

19. Case Studies • Both cross-sectional and longitudinal types, but often over duration of time

20. Units of Analysis (Individual)

21. Units of Analysis (Families)

22. Units of analysis:( Households)

23. Artifacts as “Units” of Analysis • Non-human elements (like technologies) as subjects (Actor-Network Theory) in communication studies • Communications media (radio, television, mobile phones etc…) • Media Messages & Uses

24. example: Ecological Fallacy (cheating) Importance of Choosing Appropriate Unit of Analysis

25. Ecological Fallacy (cheating Box 6.3)

26. Ecological Fallacy (cheating Box 6.3)

27. Ecological Fallacy & Reductionism ecological fallacy--wrong unit of analysis (too high) reductionism--wrong unit of analysis (too low) reductionism--wrong unit of analysis (too low)