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2. How Earth operates (simplified). Some fraction (20-30%) is reflected by atmosphere and surfaceRemainder (70-80%) is absorbed and emitted at longer wavelengthsSome emitted radiation is absorbed in atmosphere Imbalance between Equator and Poles causes circulation of atmosphere and oceanHeated surface transfers energy to atmosphereWater at surface evaporates and moves into atmosphere
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1. ESM 203: Earth-Sun* energy balance Jeff Dozier & Thomas DunneFall 2007 1
2. 2 How Earth operates (simplified) Some fraction (20-30%) is reflected by atmosphere and surface
Remainder (70-80%) is absorbed and emitted at longer wavelengths
Some emitted radiation is absorbed in atmosphere
Imbalance between Equator and Poles causes circulation of atmosphere and ocean
Heated surface transfers energy to atmosphere
Water at surface evaporates and moves into atmosphere
and condenses to fall back to surface as precipitation
3. 3 Energy balance principles Energy is the capacity for doing work (i.e. motivating some change in a system)
Energy and heat are equivalent
Energy in energy out =? energy storage
? energy storage ? either
? temperature
? phase of water (solid, liquid, gas)
4. Methods of energy transfer Radiation: electromagnetic waves propagate through space
all bodies radiate, warmer bodies more
interactions depend on wavelength
Conduction: molecule-to-molecule
hot to cold temperature
Convection: mixing in air or water enhances transfer
sensible: temperature difference between warmer and colder fluid
latent: change of phase of water during mixing 4
5. Sensible and latent heat 5
6. Radiation A body radiates energy when electrons in its atoms receive or generate so much energy that they release a small packet of energy (photon)
If the atoms are receiving or generating a lot of energy (i.e. they are hot) they emit photons in large numbers and frequently. Thus, both the intensity (energy per unit time) and the frequency of emission are high.
Since energy (E) travels through a vacuum at a constant speed (c, the speed of light), if the frequency (?) of particle (wave) emission is high, the wavelength (?) is short:
Plancks law: energy per photon 6
7. There is a spectrum (range) of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation 7
8. Two rules describing radiation were derived from this simple postulate Plancks equation
At a given temperature a body emits a spectrum of wavelengths and the intensity of radiation varies with the wavelength
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9. Integration over all wavelengths (derived from Plancks equation) Stefan-Boltzmann equation
E = energy emitted (W m2)
T = temperature (K)
s = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 108 W m2 deg4
e = emissivity (ratio of radiation from the material to that from an ideal blackbody at same temperature). 0.9-0.99 for most natural materials, but 0.01-0.05 for aluminum foil, for example.
Energy from the Sun (T = 5800K) = 6.4 x 107 W m2
Energy from Earth (T = 288K) = 390 Wm2 9
10. Intensity of solar radiation (W m2) is reduced at Earths orbital distance, from ~108 to ~103 Wm2 R = Suns radius
P = radius of Earths orbit
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11. Planck equation for Sun and Earth 11
12. Result from Planck equation Wavelength of peak radiation (m) = 2897/T(K)
Peak of Suns radiation = 2897/5800 = 0.5 m
Peak of Earths radiation = 2897/288 = 10 m
From Sun, most energy in range 0.35 m
From Earth, most energy in range 350 m
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13. 13 Units for measuring energy Joule (J): (mechanically) 1 J is amount of energy expended in accelerating a 1 kg mass by 1 m/sec for 1 sec
Mechanical energy can be converted to heat
specific heat of water is 4185 J/deg/kg
(a calorie is 4.185 J)
Latent heat (correct term is enthalpy) of:
fusion (melt-freeze) is 335,000 J/kg
vaporization is 2.5 million J/kg
Rate of energy exchange is called power. A Watt (W) is a Joule per second
A person uses about 2,500 kilocalories/day 10 million Joules/day 120 Watts
14. 14 Atmospheric absorptionand scattering
15. Incoming solar radiation 15
16. 16 Atmospheric transmission of solar and infrared radiation
17. How Earth intercepts radiation from the Sun Total solar radiation = S0 pr2
Total surface area over which the rotating earth spreads the radiation = 4pr2
Average intensity of solar radiation = S0/4 = 342 Wm2
This value averages zones where the radiation falls from nearly overhead (tropics) to grazing angles (towards poles) 17
18. The intensity of radiation intercepted by a tilted plane varies with the height of the Sun (i.e. with latitude and season) Consider a plane normal to Earths surface at a latitude of ?.
Height of sun above horizon at noon = 90-(?-d) 18
19. Radiation intercepted by a tilted plane Consider a plane normal to Earths surface at a latitude of ?. 19
20. Seasonality of solar radiation (intensity per m2 and duration per day) at top of atmosphere depends on tilt of Earths axis as it orbits the Sun 20
21. Solar radiation at top of atmosphere(MJ m2day1) 21
22. 22 Wavelengths of radiation and the atmosphere Ultraviolet (<0.4 ?m): absorbed by stratospheric ozone (less ozone ? more UV)
Visible (0.40.7 ?m): scattered by air molecules, dust, soot, salt, clouds
Scattering by air greater for shorter wavelengths (blue).
Near-infrared (0.7-3.0 ?m) (from Sun): scattered less, but absorbed by water vapor, especially at 1.4 and 1.9 ?m, and by clouds
Middle infrared (3-5 ?m) (from Sun and Earth) and thermal infrared (>5 ?m) (from Earth): absorbed by clouds, water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and other greenhouse gases
Some windows (3.5-4.0?m and 10.5-12.5?m) when no clouds
23. The simplest climate modelenergy balance with a non-absorbing atmosphere Solar radiation absorbed by whole Earth = infrared radiation emitted by whole planet
i.e., net all-wave radiation = 0 S0 = solar radiation
a = planetary average albedo
F? = infrared radiation
T = planetary surface temperature
? ? 0.90-0.95, s = 5.67108
S0 = 1370 W m2 normal to Sun
Divide by 4 to average over Earth, 342.5 Wm2
Albedo ? 0.27-0.33 (see Charlson)
Thus T ? 255K = 18C 23
24. Interpretation If the atmosphere didnt absorb radiation, the global average temperature should be about 18C.
Near the surface, average air temperature is measured to be about 16C.
The discrepancy must be due to the role of the atmosphere in absorbing energy and storing it near the surface.
This interaction between solar radiation and the atmosphere begins the processes of energy transfer that create climate 24
25. Variation of atmospheric temperature with elevation reflects absorption of radiation emitted from surface and absorbed by atmospheric gases 25
26. Mean annual global energy balance for Earths atmosphere 26
27. Hartes more realistic energy-balance model, but still 1-D (Homework 1) 27
28. Hartes 1-D climate model with atmosphere A simple model of this type allows us to anticipate the general nature of changes in atmospheric temperature if various controlling factors were to change
e.g. solar radiation, albedo, or the absorbing capacity of the atmosphere caused by changes in concentrations of absorbing gases.
We are concerned about such changes because we have come to recognize that
surface albedo has changed due to regional-scale vegetation changes;
there are feedback effects between climate and albedo because of snow and ice;
several greenhouse gases have changed over recent Earth history.
Layered atmosphere, most infrared absorption in lower layer.
Some solar absorption in upper atmosphere.
Sensible and latent heat from surface up into atmosphere.
Latent heat estimated from global average of precipitation.
Also includes energy released from human activities, although negligible.
This is a steady state model:
no time element;
in contrast with a transient model. 28
29. Structure of the Harte model 29
30. 30 Structure of energy balance models in general They have compartments
Energy (and mass) fluxes into and out of each must balance
Temperature affects some of the fluxes, so T can adjust to make them balance
Fluxes are:
Radiative
Convective (vertical) and advective (horizontal)
Both sensible and latent
Conductive (not important in atmosphere)
31. Absorption of short and long wave radiation by atmospheric constituents 31
32. Most of the atmospheric constituents that absorb out-going long-wave radiation (relatively large asymmetric molecules) although natural, are augmented by pollutant gases. If we change these concentrations, expect more outgoing radiation to be absorbed and the atmospheric temperature to rise, especially in the lower parts of the atmosphere. 32
33. 33
34. Radiation imbalance varies with latitude 34
35. 35