Chapter 12

1. Chapter 12 Assessment of Reading

2. Assessment of Reading • Statistics indicate that as many as 40 percent of students cannot read at a basic level and that the percentage is even higher children from low socioeconomic backgrounds. • Many factors may be involved in reading failure. • There is an emphasis on reading assessment and instruction. • Reading involves the components of recognition, analysis, and comprehension. • Reading assessment involves both word recognition and reading comprehension.

3. Reading Assessment • The evaluation of the reading process can be done either informally or formally. • One advantage of informal reading assessment is that it provides more of an opportunity to understand the reading process rather than simply to analyze the reading product. • There are a number of helpful informal assessment procedures. • There has been significant interest in identifying young children who are at risk for reading failure. • A number of instruments are available that measure emerging reading skills. • These tests can be either norm referenced or criterion referenced.

4. Reading Assessment • Those instruments considered more formal test are usually called diagnostic reading tests. • Many of these diagnostic test actually magnify a particular area to determine an individual’s strengths and weaknesses. • Another type of formal test is the oral reading test. • These instruments provide documentation of the child’s overall reading ability, considering such areas as speed and accuracy.

5. Informal Reading Assessment Procedures • Informal reading assessment procedures should be used by teachers for: • Identification of areas for further evaluation or remediation • Informal determination of objectives and teaching strategies • Development and evaluation of IEPs Informal Reading Inventories: • Informal reading inventories (IRIs) can be developed by a teacher or publisher to accompany a specific basal reading series. • It is usually necessary to select representative passages from various levels of a student’s reading program and generate comprehension questions related to those passages.

6. Informal Reading Assessment Procedures • Although IRIs differ from one another in format and content, most contain graded word lists and graded reading passages that yield a measure of word recognition and comprehension skills. • Some IRIs also include a measure of listening comprehension. • The term graded refers to the approximate grade level associated with the passages. • Typically, three levels of reading are determined from an IRI. • The independent level is the level at which the student can read alone without any help. • The instructional level is the teaching level at which the student can read relatively comfortably but finds it challenging. • The frustration level is the level at which the student finds the material difficult and frustrating.

7. Informal Reading Assessment Procedures • There are various criteria for recognition and comprehension. • IRIs have certain limitations. • IRIs have significant technical deficiencies. • The usefulness of the comprehension measures has been questioned. • There is a general lack of reliability and validity data for most IRIs and that different IRIs do not necessarily yield similar results when administered to the same student.

8. Informal Reading Assessment Procedures Other Informal Techniques: • Cloze Procedure • The cloze procedure consists of a reading passage in which certain words are deleted, usually with a fixed ratio approach. • The fixed ratio method has been criticized. • In the close procedure, the student must read the passage and provide the missing words by analyzing the content and its structure. • It measures the reader’s ability to interpret written passages, and it requires the student to use both comprehension skills and knowledge of linguistic structure. • The cloze procedure can also be used to evaluate spelling.

9. Informal Reading Assessment Procedures • Maze Procedure • The maze procedure is used frequently to evaluate comprehension in curriculum-based measurement procedures. • It is similar to the cloze procedure except that vertically presented choices are given instead of blanks. • Retelling • Retelling can be used to help determine a student’s comprehension of reading material. • It allows the reader to provide a free recall of the information read as opposed to responding to structured questions. • Retelling doesn’t bias the reader. • An approach that has been used to measure reading comprehension is the think aloud procedure, where the student reads a passage and tells what he or she is thinking about or what might happen next. • Several approaches to analyze retellings have been suggested.

10. Informal Reading Assessment Procedures • Questioning • Questioning a student about what he or she has read can be very useful but should be done after the student has had the opportunity to retell. • There should be three types of question-answer relationships (QARs) • Right There QARs: the answer is explicitly stated in the reading material • Think and Search QAR: the student must infer the answer from information presented throughout the material • In My Head QARs: the student must use past information, knowledge, and experiences to answer questions for which the answers are not in the material. • Reading Diagnosis Sheet • This procedure breaks down the reading process into 28 areas.

11. Informal Reading Assessment Procedures • Error Analysis • Oral Reading • Analyzing errors made during oral reading and word recognition can provide important information that can be useful in developing instructional plans for students. • The first step involves the actual sampling of the oral reading. • The second step is to identify possible error patterns and confirm those patterns through retesting. • It is important that a consistent coding or notation system and perhaps scoring system be used that allows for greater communication among those who see the error analysis. • The third step is to interview the student, which involves asking the student why type of approach to reading he or she is using. • The last step involves recording the results of the error analysis.

12. Informal Reading Assessment Procedures • Reading Comprehension • The same four step procedure should be used in evaluating the errors in reading comprehension. • Miscue Analysis • This is an informal process for assessing oral-reading deficits • Miscue analysis yields information on skills in oral reading, comprehension, and word analysis by providing a systematic method for studying the patterns of reading errors. • First, an appropriate reading selection is made, the student reads the selection, and the oral reading is audiotaped • Next, the student retells the story. • Finally, the pattern of errors are studied both qualitatively and quantitatively.

13. Emergent Reading Tests • Emergent reading tests should be used by teachers and diagnostic specialists for screening for at-risk reading problems, and informal determination of objectives and reading strategies. Basic Early Assessment of Reading (BEARS) • Age/grade level: Kindergarten to grade 3 • Type of instrument: Criterion referenced • Scores yielded: Individual profile report and summary report • The BEARS is a series of four criterion-referenced tests that measure the areas of phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension, and oral reading fluency.

14. Emergent Reading Tests Early Reading Success Indicator (ERSI) • Age/grade level: 6 to 10 years/Kindergarten to grade 4 • Type of instrument: Norm-referenced • Scores yielded: Variety of derived scores • The ERSI addresses the areas of phonemic awareness, phonological processing, rapid automatic naming, decoding, auditory working memory, and verbal comprehension. • The ERSI is used to predict the early reading ability of children using a process model.

15. Emergent Reading Tests Pre-Reading Inventory of Phonological Awareness (PIPA) • Age/grade level: 4 to 6 years • Type of instrument: Norm-referenced • Scores yielded: Percentile ranges • The PIPA includes six subtests: Rhyme Awareness, Syllable Segmentation, Alliteration Awareness, Sound Isolation, Sound Segmentation, and Letter-Sound Knowledge • It focuses on phonological skills that are used to identify children at risk for reading failure.

16. Diagnostic Reading Tests • Diagnostic reading tests should be used by teachers and diagnostic specialists for: • Screening and identification • Informal determination of objectives and teaching strategies • Documentation of educational need • Establishment of IEP goals Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test-4 (SDRT4) • The SDRT4 is a group-administered and individually administered instrument designed to measure a student’s strengths and weaknesses in reading. • It is used with grades 1 to 12

17. Diagnostic Reading Tests • It places special emphasis on low-achieving students • The SDRT4 measures four major components of reading: vocabulary, phonetic analysis, comprehension, and scanning • It has six levels, for different age ranges • Red Level: middle of grade 1- middle of grade 2 • Orange Level: middle of grade 2- middle of grade 3 • Green Level: middle of grade 3 to idle of grade 4, low-achieving grade 5 • Purple Level: grades 4.5-6.5 • Brown Level: grades 6.5 to 8.9, low achieving high-school students • Blue Level: grades 9 to 12

18. Diagnostic Reading Tests • Description: • Red Level: Consonants, Vowels, Word Reading, Listening Vocabulary, Sentences, Riddles, Cloze, Paragraphs with Questions • Orange Level: Consonants, Vowels, Listening Vocabulary, Reading Vocabulary, Cloze, Paragraphs with Questions • Green Level: Consonants, Vowels, Listening Vocabulary, Reading Vocabulary, Paragraphs with Questions • Purple, Brown, and Blue Levels: Reading Vocabulary, Paragraphs with Questions, Scanning • Interpretation of Results: • The SDRT4 can be either hand scores or computer scored. • Scores include: norm-referenced scores, percentile ranks, stanines, grade equivalents, and scaled scores. • There are also progress indicators that document whether a student has demonstrated competence in various reading skills.

19. Diagnostic Reading Tests • Technical Characteristics: • Normative Sample • A nationally stratified sample of approximately 60,000 was used • Reliability • Internal reliability coefficients were generally above .80 • Alternate-form reliability coefficients ranged from .62 to .88 • Validity • Construct and criterion-related data are presented in the manual that show high coefficients with the previous edition of the SDRT. • Review of Relevant Research: • No relevant research literature was located for the SDRT4 or any of the previous editions.

20. Diagnostic Reading Tests Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests-Revised/Normative Update (WRMT-R) • The WRMT-R includes six individually administered tests and a two-part supplementary checklist designed for individuals ages 5 to 75+ • There are two different forms: Form G contains all six tests and the supplementary checklist, and Form H contains only four tests. • Description: • Visual-Auditory Learning (Form G only) • Letter Identification (Form G only) • Word Identification • Word Attack • Word Comprehension • Passage Comprehension • Supplementary Letter Checklist (Form G only)

21. Diagnostic Reading Tests • Interpretation of Results: • Age equivalents, grade equivalents, percentile ranks, and standard scores are available. • Scoring of the WRMT-R is rather cumbersome. • Technical Characteristics: • Normative Sample • The total sample was over 3,000 individuals. • Reliability • Split-half coefficients were above .90 for all subtests and clusters • Validity • Concurrent validity coefficients ranged from .25 to .91

22. Diagnostic Reading Tests • Review of Relevant Research: • Relatively little research on the WRMT-R was found • The studies indicate that it is a widely used test but that its results might be different from those of other reading tests. • Reviews of the WRMT-R are mixed.

23. Other Diagnostic Reading Tests Gray Diagnostic Reading Test-Second Edition (GDRT-II) • Age level: 6 to 13 years • Administration: Individual • Good reliability, adequate validity • Scores yielded: Standard scores, percentile ranks, age equivalents, grade equivalents, and a descriptive rating • There are two alternate forms of the GDRT-II that can be used to evaluate specific reading strengths and weaknesses. • The four core subtests are Letter/Word Identification, Phonetic Analysis, Reading Vocabulary, and Meaningful Vocabulary.

24. Other Diagnostic Reading Tests Test of Reading Comprehension-3 (TORC-3) • Age level: 7 to 18 years • Administration: Individual (small group is possible) • Adequate standardization, good reliability, questionable validity • Scores yielded: Scaled scores, percentile ranks, Reading Comprehension Quotient • The TORC-3 is theoretically a measure of silent reading comprehension. • Only a small part focuses on traditional comprehension measures. • Most of the test is concerned with vocabulary and syntax.

25. Other Diagnostic Reading Tests WJ III Diagnostic Reading Battery (WJ III DRB) • Age level: 2 to 90+ • Administration: Individual • Good standardization, good reliability, good validity • Scores yielded: Age and grade equivalents, percentiles, standard scores, descriptive reading levels • The WJ III DRB is a repackaging of ten subtests from the Woodcock-Johnson-III. • The WJ III DRB includes measure of the five areas identified in Reading First, suggesting it has a strong pre-reading component.

26. Oral Reading Tests • Oral reading tests should be used by teachers and diagnostic specialists for: • Screening and identification • Informal determination of objectives and teaching strategies • Documentation of educational need • Establishment of IEP goals • Oral reading tests measure a student’s rate and accuracy of reading, and sometimes the comprehension of orally read material. • Oral reading tests allow for error analysis

27. Oral Reading Tests Gray Oral Reading Test-4 (GORT-4) • Age level: 6 to 18 • Alternate forms: 2 forms • Normed on over 1,600 students from 18 states. • There is evidence for content, criterion-related, and construct validity, along with alternate form and internal reliability. • Areas measured: Rate and Accuracy, combined to form a Fluency score. • Types of scores: Standard scores, percentile ranks, grade equivalents, miscue analysis • The error analysis yields the most important information, although an examiner with a strong diagnostic reading background would get the most usable information from the test.

28. Oral Reading Tests Gilmore Oral Reading Test • Age level: grades 1 to 8 • Alternate forms: 2 forms, C and D • Normed on over 2,200 children • Alternate form reliability coefficients were moderate at best; no validity data • Areas measured: Accuracy, comprehension, and reading rate • Types of scores: Performance ratings and grade scores • The informal use is the primary advantage of this instrument • Normative use is discouraged.

29. Chapter 13 Assessment of Mathematics

30. Assessment of Mathematics • Less attention is given to the assessment of mathematics than of reading, but an evaluation of mathematics should be included when conducting a comprehensive basic skills assessment • Mathematics assessment usually involves the areas of mathematical concepts, computation, application, and problem solving. • Mathematical concepts focuses on basic information, such as numeration and number concepts. • Computation involves such areas as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. • Application includes such areas as measurement skills, money skills, and time concepts. • Problem solving involves the ability to determine how to solve a given problem and perform the necessary operations to determine the correct answer.

31. Assessment of Mathematics • The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) has published ten specific math standards in 2000 that should be used in the area of mathematics. • Standard 1: Numbers and Operations • Standard 2: Algebra • Standard 3: Geometry • Standard 4: Measurement • Standard 5: Data Analysis and Probability • Standard 6: Problem Solving • Standard 7: Reasoning and Proof • Standard 8: Communication • Standard 9: Connections • Standard 10: Representations

32. Assessment of Mathematics • A number of both informal and formal approaches to mathematics assessment is available. • Informal assessment can provide extremely important information to assist in educational decision making • Norm-referenced tests for the mathematical areas are sometimes referred to as diagnostic tests. • Criterion-references instruments are used to identify more specific information that might be incorporated into an IEP.

33. Informal Assessment • Informal math assessment should be used by teachers for: • Determination and evaluation of teaching strategies • Gathering of prereferral information • Development and evaluation of IEPs Error Analysis • Error analyses in mathematics are relatively simple because a written product is available, so the teacher has a tremendous amount of potential information from the students’ routine math work in school. • Several in-depth studies have been conducted to determine the typical extent and types of mathematical errors. • The pattern of error can yield meaningful information, particularly in determining the teaching strategy that is most appropriate.

34. Informal Assessment • A nine-step model for diagnosing and remediating errors in mathematics computation. • Step 1: Obtain Samples • Step 2: Interview the Student • Step 3: Analyze the Errors and Identify Error Patterns • Step 4: Select Primary Error Pattern and Show the Precise Error to the Student • Step 5: Demonstrate a Correct Computational Procedure as Part of the Corrective Feedback Mechanism • Step 6: Select a Corrective Strategy • Step 7: Introduce Appropriate Practice • Step 8: Identify and Apply Normative Standards • Step 9: Evaluate Performance

35. Informal Assessment Interviews • Interviewing a student about math performance is not really a typical interview. • The diagnostic math interview can be described as asking the students to talk their way through the arithmetic problems as they are solving them. • The student can act like the teacher and show the examiner how to solve specific types of problems. • Using interviews will help determine the process the student is using to solve problems. Authentic Assessment • Another helpful informal approach is authentic assessment. • It allows the examiner to determine the strategies used in attempting to solve a problem.

36. Informal Assessment Other Informal Approaches • One unique approach is the use of dynamic assessment to identify the cognitive deficiencies that result in math problems. • This leads to an assessment-intervention link • One interesting method for evaluating math speed is a computerized test which analyzes the response latencies for a student for all the basic facts in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. • Word problems can be informally assessed using the “question-answer relationship” (QAR) technique.

37. Informal Assessment • Curriculum-based assessment is also helpful, such as the APPLY strategy: • Analyze the curriculum • Prepare items to meet the objectives • Probe frequently • Load data using a graph format • Yield to results—revisions and decisions

38. Diagnostic Mathematics Tests • Diagnostic mathematics tests should be used by teachers and diagnostic specialists for: • Screening and identification • Informal determination of objectives and teaching strategies • Documentation of educational need • Establishment of IEP goals Key Math-Revised/Normative Update (KM-R) • Most of the items in the KM-R are presented orally by the examiner, using visual stimuli • There are two forms, and the Normative Update extended the norms to kindergarten through grade 12

39. Diagnostic Mathematics Tests • Description: • The KM-R contains 13 subtests that measure basic concepts, operations, and applications. • Basic Concepts: Numeration, Rational Numbers, Geometry • Operations: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division, Mental Computation • Applications: Measures, Time and Money, Estimation, Interpreting Data, Problem Solving • Interpretation of Results: • Four levels of diagnostic information are available: total test, area, subtest, and domain • Standard scores, grade and age equivalents, percentile ranks, and stanines are available.

40. Diagnostic Mathematics Tests • Technical Characteristics: • Normative Sample • The total sample was over 3,000 individuals • Reliabilty • There is adequate reliability for the total score. • Validity • Few validity data are presented. • Review of Relevant Research: • Little research was located on the revised version. • The KM-R was a substantial improvement over its predecessor. • A more extensive revision would have been appropriate for the update. • The KM-R is similar to the original Key Math in format.

41. Diagnostic Mathematics Tests Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test-4 (SDMT-4) • The SDMT-4 is a group-administered or individually administered instrument designed to measure basic mathematic concepts and skills from grades 1 to 12. • It is divided into six levels: • Red Level: grades 1.5 to 2.5 • Orange Level: grades 2.5 to 3.5 • Green Level: grades 3.5 to 4.5 • Purple Level: grades 4.5 to 6.5 • Brown Level: grades 6.5 to 8.9 • Blue Level: grades 9.0 to 12.9

42. Diagnostic Mathematics Tests • Each level contains items that measure a student’s knowledge in Concepts and Applications, and Computation. • Interpretation of Results • Raw scores can be transformed into percentile ranks, stanines, grade equivalents, and scaled scores. • The SDMT-4 offers a progress-indicator score that is a criterion-referenced cutoff point. • Technical Characteristics • Normative Sample • A large, stratified, nationally representative sample of approximately 88,000 was used.

43. Diagnostic Mathematics Tests • Reliability • Internal consistency coefficients were mostly above .90 • Alternate form reliability coefficients were generally above .80 • Interrater reliability was .97 or higher • Validity • Validity data are generally lacking • Review of Relevant Research • The SDMT-4 has not been studied.

44. Diagnostic Mathematics Tests Test of Mathematical Abilities-2 (TOMA-2) • The TOMA-2 includes 5 subtests that provide standardized information about two major skill areas (story problems and computation) and related information about attitude, vocabulary, and the general application of information. • It is a norm-referenced test designed for use with students ages 8 to 18 • It can be either group or individually administered • Administration takes approximately one to two hours.

45. Diagnostic Mathematics Tests • Description • Vocabulary • Computation • General Information • Story Problems • Attitude toward Math (optional) • Interpretation of Results • The TOMA-2 provides standard scores, percentiles, and a Total Math Quotient

46. Diagnostic Mathematics Tests • Technical Characteristics • Normative Sample • The sample included 2,082 students • Eleven percent of the sample were students with disabilities • Reliability • There is good reliability for the composites • Validity • Criterion-related validity correlations were good. • Review of Relevant Research • No empirical studies on the TOMA-2 or its predecessor were located. • One review concludes that the TOMA-2 is useful in identifying student who are significantly below or above their peers in mathematics and in documenting progress in intervention programs.

47. Other Diagnostic Mathematics Tests Comprehensive Mathematical Abilities Test (CMAT) • Age level: 7 to 18 • Individually administered • Good reliability (composites, good validity • Scores yielded: standard scores for subtests and composites • The CMAT consists of six score subtests and six supplemental subtests

48. Other Diagnostic Mathematics Tests • The Core Composites are Basic Calculation, Mathematical Reasoning, and General Mathematics • The Supplemental Composites are Advanced Calculations, Practical Applications, and Overall Mathematic Abilities • Raw scores can be compared to both age-based norms and grade-based norms

49. Other Diagnostic Mathematics Tests Test of Early Mathematics Ability-Third Edition (TEMA-3) • Age level: 3 to 8 years • Individually administered • Adequate reliability and validity • Scores yielded: Standard scores, percentile ranks, age and grade equivalents • The TEMA-3 includes 72 items measuring the areas of numbering skills, number-comparison facility, numerical literacy, mastery of number facts, calculation skills, and understanding of concepts. • There are two alternative forms of the TEMA-3

50. Criterion-Referenced Mathematics Instruments • Criterion-referenced mathematics instruments should be used by teachers for: • Identification of areas for further evaluation or remediation • Informal determination of objectives and teaching strategies • Development and evaluation of IEPs Diagnostic Assessment of Computation Skills • The Diagnostic Assessment of Computation Skills is an interactive CD-ROM software package designed for elementary, middle, and junior high school students who have specific problems with arithmetic computation skills.