Hazard Risk and Culture ( Wildavsky and Dake., in Cutter: Ch 13 )

Geography 106bHazards Hazard Risk and Culture(Wildavsky and Dake., in Cutter: Ch 13) • theories of risk perception, a focus on individuals/groups • knowledge • personality • economic • political • cultural • which explains most/best? • implications Geog 2152

Discussion • Why do some people feel nuclear technology or chemical pesticides or hazardous waste are a large concern while others feel they are a small concern? • We have already focused attention on characteristics of hazards; what about characteristics of individuals/groups? Geog 2152

Why should we care? • Why bother doing research on what hazards people fear and why? Geog 2152

Problem • several different theories to explain why some (technological) hazard risks warrant attention and others do not • which theory(ies) is/are most important? • knowledge • personality • economic • political • cultural Geog 2152

Knowledge Theory • pragmatic • thesis: awareness: of-course-people-are-worried-they-have-lots-to-worry-about (Holdren, 1983) • focus on safety: “subtle” threats (e.g., nuclear technology) receive attention because more immediately serious (e.g., auto accidents) are “taken care of” Geog 2152

Knowledge Theory • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – e.g., for safety Geog 2152

Measuring Knowledge Theory • self report • level of education • perceptual accuracy (fatalities from 8 technological activities compared to expert-collected data – e.g. contraceptives, aviation, lawn mowers) • hypothesis: greater knowledge = greater perceived threat from hazards Geog 2152

Measuring Knowledge Theory Questions: • Do you agree that these measures relate well to the theory? • Do you agree with the hypothesis that greater knowledge will be associated with greater perceived hazard threat? Why/why not? Geog 2152

Personality Theory • perceived danger • risk takers and risk averters Oblomov Geog 2152

Measuring Personality Theory • traditional, validated measures developed by psychologists • Adjective Check List, California Psychological Inventory • scales developed for other purposes • e.g., autonomous, conciliatory, exhibitionist • hypothesis: there is consistency between various personality types and perceived threat from hazards Geog 2152

Economic Theory(two competing theories) classical • wealthy more willing to take risks with technology (i.e., they benefit) • poor less willing as they bear burdens (e.g., pollution) post materialist • high living standards achieved, want (even) better health and better interpersonal relations • wealth/free market capitalism not ends in themselves Geog 2152

Measuring Economic Theory • income Question • Which hypothesis do you find more compelling, the classical or the post-materialist? Geog 2152

Political Theory • risk view advances or maintains political position/power • researchers focus on socio-demographic characteristics (e.g., gender, age, social class, liberal-conservative rating, membership in political party) Geog 2152

Measuring Political Orientation • political party membership • liberal-conservative ideology scale (stance on 20 policy issues) • self-rated liberal or conservative Geog 2152

Cultural Theory • choice of risk to fear supports (consistent with) “way of life” or “political culture” (e.g., rural farming, retirement, child rearing) • supported by: • cultural biases: worldviews (way the world does and should work) • interpersonal relations (connections) (hierarchical, egalitarian, individualist) • social relations studied most (but often called cultural biases) Geog 2152

Cultural Biases hierarchist • superiors and subordinates • authority • obedience • e.g., military, scientists vs laypeople egalitarian • diminish difference (e.g., gender, race, wealth) • everybody has “authority” • e.g., the “Borg” Geog 2152

Cultural Biases individualist • emphasize freedom, choice • competition • self regulation • minimize “constraints” (i.e., anti hierarchist in this respect) “Mavericks” Geog 2152

Measuring Cultural Biases hierarchy index • patriotism: “I’m for my country, right or wrong” • law and order: “The police should have the right to listen in on private telephone conversations when in investigating crime” • ethical standards: “I think I am stricter about right and wrong than most people” • centralized government: “Centralization is one of the things that makes a country great.” Geog 2152

Measuring Cultural Biases individualism index • primacy of individuals: “Most of what I value in life is achieved through my own efforts; my community and the place I live in contribute little.” • free market paramount: “The welfare state tends to destroy individual initiative” • individual effort rewarded: “If a person has the vision and ability to acquire property, s/he ought to be allowed to enjoy it him/herself” Geog 2152

Measuring Cultural Biases egalitarianism index • redistribute resources: “Much of the conflict in this world could be eliminated if we had more equal distribution of resources among nations.” • government intervention: “I support a tax shift so that the burden falls more heavily on corporations and persons with large incomes.” • anti-institutionalized inequality: “The human goals of sharing and brotherhood are being hindered by current big institutions” Geog 2152

Discussion • Which theory do you think is the single best explanation of variation in hazard risk perception (i.e., why some hazards evoke high concern in some people but not others). • Why? Geog 2152

Results Re: 25 Technological Hazards • 134 San Francisco residents • intensive telephone surveys knowledge • inconsistent or weak: greater knowledge = greater perceived benefit and lower perceived threat (relationship often weak or statistically insignificant) Geog 2152

Results Re: 25 Technological Hazards personality • consistent: • hazard averse = less aggressive, less autonomous, more conciliatory, more obedient (see hierarchism) • hazard indifferent = more exhibitionist, more autonomous, less deferent (see egalitarianism and individualism) • no theory to explain this • consistent with social relations categories (see above, see cultural theory) Geog 2152

Results Re: 25 Technological Hazards economic • inconsistent: neither high income nor low income groups perceived hazards as threatening Geog 2152

Results Re: 25 Technological Hazards political • consistent: liberals, on self-rated liberal-conservative scale, more likely see hazards as threatening • political types also correlated with social relations categories • liberal 0.50 with egalitarianism -0.55 with hierarchism, and -0.37 with individualism • republican 0.31 hierarchism, and 0.40 with individualism and -0.45 with egalitarianism Geog 2152

Results Re: 25 Technological Hazards cultural (social relations) • consistent (in expected directions) • all below are statistically significant # correlation coefficients – vary between -1 and 1. 0 = no correlation * value unspecified Geog 2152

Summary of Findings • cultural theory = best single explanation: since social relations are correlated with political and personality (Wildavsky and Dake) • BUT – recent studies show cultural bias is a significant but weak predictor or risk perception (a measurement issue?) Geog 2152

More Social ContextSocial Conflict over Hazards • worldviews (cultural biases), especially when they clash (conflict) = entrenchment • can “trump” seemingly straightforward technical “facts” • e.g., Sabatier and Hunter (1989): present info - wealth of scientific evidence shows 15 year decline in water clarity: • environmentalists believe data • economic growth advocates did not Source: http://www.infoshop.org/ Geog 2152

More Social ContextTrust in Institutions • how people perceive institutions is also involved (but linked to cultural bias) • e.g., Bord and OConnor (1991): perceived risk of food irradiation correlated with trust in food industry and scientists • “trust” effect replicated in several studies source: http://www.thismodernworld.org Geog 2152

perceived hazard characteristics cultural bias perceived risk Role for Dread Uncertainty etc? • recall that characteristics of hazards also determine risk concern • e.g., dread, uncertainty, controllability • e.g., cultural biases may predict dread etc. (sample size too small to test) Geog 2152

Implications Question: • What does all this mean for say, hazard risk management, and hazard risk communication? Geog 2152

Hazard Risk and Culture ( Wildavsky and Dake., in Cutter: Ch 13 )