Developing vocabulary learning and teaching: a learner strategy perspective

1. Developing vocabulary learning and teaching: a learner strategy perspective Suzanne Graham, Institute of Education

2. Background More progress seems to occur in Year 12 - mean number of words known rises from 852 in Year 11 to 1,555 (Milton, 2006) Strong relationship between vocabulary levels and the A-Level grade learners achieve in French (Richards et al, 2008)

3. Background Issues of motivation alongside issues of achievement Reason for discontinuing with language study? – McLaughlan (2006, in McLaughlan, 2007) Source of difficulty and sense of being overwhelmed (Graham, 1997; Richards et al, 2008) Continues at undergraduate level (Gallagher-Brett, 2006) Lack of sense of how to improve (Graham, 2004; Williams et al, 2002))

4. Background • Incidental vocabulary learning not enough; explicit learning also needed BUT • Do learners know how to learn vocabulary effectively? • Narrow range of strategies by Year 12 – Look, say, cover, write, check: ‘I read it through looking at it, and I usually have one side of the page in French and another in English, I look at the French and then I cover up the French side, look at the English and see if I can do the French bit and then the other way round. [It’s just] Continuous looking at it’ (Graham, 1997, 77)

5. Background • KS3 National Curriculum expectations but unassessed and lacking in explicit guidance for teachers: • Key Processes - Developing language-learning strategies • Pupils should be able to (…): • • develop techniques for memorising words, phrases and spellings

6. Background Vocabulary central to all aspects of language learning A problematic area within MFL in England – secondary school pupils lag behind European learners even accounting for differences in lesson time Learners learn on average 170 words a year in the first five years of schooling; slow down after a spurt in year 7 (Milton, 2006)

7. Background National Curriculum gloss: Techniques for memorising These include identifying similarities between new and known words, associating words and phrases with a physical response, actions, images, the written form or sounds(including rhymes, repetition), practising with a friend or family member and using the technique ‘look, cover, write/say, check’.

8. Background Textbooks: Expo 1, Module 1 Strategy box: ‘Stratégie 1: Look, say, cover, write, check’ More advice and a worksheet in Module 2; advice to learn high-frequency words in Module 5. KS2 Framework includes LLS but not widely taught (Cable et al, 2010)

9. Teaching learners how to learn vocabulary Studies of instruction in vocabulary learning strategies have provided generally positive results (Nyikos & Fan, 2007) Mirrors research in other areas – without explicit instruction in learner strategies, learners don’t develop them

10. Learner strategies-definitions • Macaro (2006) – ‘mental activity’, ‘specific task’, ‘in pursuit of a learning goal’ ‘transferrable’ • Metacognitive - 'higher order executive skills that may entail planning for, monitoring, or evaluating the success of a learning activity' (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, 44) • Cognitive -'operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning' (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, 44)

11. Macaro, 2006 - combinations ‘strategy clusters may be ineffective if individual strategies within them are inappropriately orchestrated. … Evaluation of strategy effectiveness, by learners, is likely to be undertaken against a background of the relative effectiveness of strategy clusters’. (pp. 327-328).

12. Motivation Perception of lack of progress or real achievement, or sense of how to improve (Graham, 2004, 2006) Difficulty an important factor in giving up language learning (Graham, 2004; Macaro and Erler, 2007, and forthcoming)

13. Theoretical perspectives Expectancy-value models of motivation (Eccles, 1983): individuals ‘ levels of motivation influenced by a) their expectations of success in a given domain The value they place on such success Expectancy and value closely related – those who expect success, tend to value it more (Mills et al, 2007)

14. Self-efficacy and learner strategies Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1993) as a sub-theory within expectancy-value framework (Dörnyei and Ottó,1998) central to persistence within ‘actional’ phase of a process model of motivation Self-efficacy beliefs linked to attributions, explanations for success/failure Adaptive versus maladaptive attributions: controllable/uncontrollable, internal/external Learner strategies clearly adaptive

15. Learner strategy instruction Aims to: • ‘Demystify’ successful language learning: ‘Often poorer learners don’t have a clue as to how good learners arrive at their answers and feel that they can never perform as good learners do. By revealing the process, this myth can be exposed’. (Rubin,1990:282) • Develop greater awareness in learners that how they learn is just as important as what they learn

16. Learner strategies and self-efficacy Growing evidence that strategy instruction can significantly improve MFL learners’ self-efficacy: Studies so far in reading (Macaro & Erler, 2008) and in listening (Graham & Macaro, 2008). Why not in relation to vocabulary?

17. Evaluation/ action planning Raising learners’ awareness Learner strategy instruction cycle Teacher feedback Strategy modelling Guided practice Macaro & Graham, 2007

18. The cycle illustrated through vocabularylearning – adapted from Grenfell & Harris, 1999) • Awareness-raising – set task ‘cold’ – 10 words to learn – brainstorm – checklist; • Modelling – by pupils, teacher, add to checklist • General practice – 10 words to learn; each group of learners tries a different strategy; checklist for homeworks • Action planning – personal needs and targets • Focussed practice, fading out of reminders • Evaluation – progress? What worked best?

19. Examples of types of strategies Overview of interventions in Nyikos and Fan (2007): Elaboration/associative strategies (using imagery, colours, etc.) – more effective than simple repetition- depth of processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Lawson and Hogben, 1996) Keyword method Keyword strategy for vocabulary learning.ppt found to be effective in a number of studies, especially if keywords were self-generated (Laufer et al, 1997) and if L1 and L2 are related

20. Nyikos & Fan (2007) cont. Vocabulary strategy instruction more likely to be successful if: Explicit On-going Practice of strategies available, with feedback from teacher A metacognitive element is included that allows learners to evaluate effectiveness of strategy use

21. Further practical examples of strategies to introduce to learners Macaro (2001): Words into shapes: Word webs and hooks Word associations, e.g. ‘chips’, French sheep eat crisps (p. 206) Songs Raps Also the loci method

22. Conclusions Vocabulary learning an important issue in MFL Improvement is possible Effective strategies unlikely to develop on their own except for the most effective learners – others need help Practice, evaluation and action planning key, with feedback from teacher on strategy use Improved vocabulary and improved motivation through underlining of link between what learners do and what they achieve